Abortion: Difference between revisions

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==Epidemiology and Demographics==
==Epidemiology and Demographics==
The incidence/prevalence of [disease name] is approximately [number range] per 100,000 individuals worldwide.


OR
* The incidence of abortion Worldwide, was estimated to be  35 per 1000 women ages 15 to 44 from 2010 to 2014.<ref name="pmid27179755">{{cite journal| author=Sedgh G, Bearak J, Singh S, Bankole A, Popinchalk A, Ganatra B | display-authors=etal| title=Abortion incidence between 1990 and 2014: global, regional, and subregional levels and trends. | journal=Lancet | year= 2016 | volume= 388 | issue= 10041 | pages= 258-67 | pmid=27179755 | doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(16)30380-4 | pmc=5498988 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=27179755  }}</ref>
* The rate in resource-rich countries was 27 per 1000 and in resource-limited countries was 37 per 1000. The incidence was highest in the Caribbean (65 per 1000), and the lowest in North America (17 per 1000). <ref name="pmid28094905">{{cite journal| author=Jones RK, Jerman J| title=Abortion Incidence and Service Availability In the United States, 2014. | journal=Perspect Sex Reprod Health | year= 2017 | volume= 49 | issue= 1 | pages= 17-27 | pmid=28094905 | doi=10.1363/psrh.12015 | pmc=5487028 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=28094905  }}</ref>
* In the United States, one in four women will have an abortion during their reproductive life.<ref name="pmid28094905" />


In [year], the incidence/prevalence of [disease name] was estimated to be [number range] cases per 100,000 individuals worldwide.
* The incidence of abortion is approximately 31%, the true incidence of abortion is difficult to ascertain, as many losses are not recognized<ref name="pmid30894356">{{cite journal| author=Magnus MC, Wilcox AJ, Morken NH, Weinberg CR, Håberg SE| title=Role of maternal age and pregnancy history in risk of miscarriage: prospective register based study. | journal=BMJ | year= 2019 | volume= 364 | issue=  | pages= l869 | pmid=30894356 | doi=10.1136/bmj.l869 | pmc=6425455 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=30894356  }}</ref><ref name="pmid33931702">{{cite journal| author=Wilcox AJ, Weinberg CR, O'Connor JF, Baird DD, Schlatterer JP, Canfield RE | display-authors=etal| title=Incidence of early loss of pregnancy. | journal=N Engl J Med | year= 1988 | volume= 319 | issue= 4 | pages= 189-94 | pmid=3393170 | doi=10.1056/NEJM198807283190401 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=3393170  }}</ref>


OR
* The rate of abortion influenced by maternal age and history of prior pregnancy loss.<ref name="pmid308943562">{{cite journal| author=Magnus MC, Wilcox AJ, Morken NH, Weinberg CR, Håberg SE| title=Role of maternal age and pregnancy history in risk of miscarriage: prospective register based study. | journal=BMJ | year= 2019 | volume= 364 | issue=  | pages= l869 | pmid=30894356 | doi=10.1136/bmj.l869 | pmc=6425455 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=30894356  }}</ref> 15% of women experience sporadic abortion, 2% of pregnant women experience two consecutive abortion and only 0.4 to 1% have three consecutive abortion. <ref name="pmid3073445">{{cite journal| author=Salat-Baroux J| title=[Recurrent spontaneous abortions]. | journal=Reprod Nutr Dev | year= 1988 | volume= 28 | issue= 6B | pages= 1555-68 | pmid=3073445 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=3073445  }}</ref>
 
* The incidence of Abortions in the united state were highest in women ages 20 to 24 (19.1 per 1000 women) and 25 to 29 (18.5 per 1000 women)<ref name="pmid33237897">{{cite journal| author=Kortsmit K, Jatlaoui TC, Mandel MG, Reeves JA, Oduyebo T, Petersen E | display-authors=etal| title=Abortion Surveillance - United States, 2018. | journal=MMWR Surveill Summ | year= 2020 | volume= 69 | issue= 7 | pages= 1-29 | pmid=33237897 | doi=10.15585/mmwr.ss6907a1 | pmc=7713711 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33237897  }}</ref>
In [year], the incidence of [disease name] is approximately [number range] per 100,000 individuals with a case-fatality rate of [number range]%.
* Most abortions were done in women who were unmarried (85%) and had one or more children (59%).<ref name="pmid33237897" />
 
* Abortion rates in individuals of non-Hispanic White were 38.7 ,20.0 for Hispanic, and 7.7 for other races per 1000 women. <ref name="pmid33237897" />
 
* In the United States in 2018, 78% of abortions occur at 9 weeks or earlier, 92% at 13 weeks or earlier, and 8% at or after 14 weeks.<ref name="pmid332378972">{{cite journal| author=Kortsmit K, Jatlaoui TC, Mandel MG, Reeves JA, Oduyebo T, Petersen E | display-authors=etal| title=Abortion Surveillance - United States, 2018. | journal=MMWR Surveill Summ | year= 2020 | volume= 69 | issue= 7 | pages= 1-29 | pmid=33237897 | doi=10.15585/mmwr.ss6907a1 | pmc=7713711 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=33237897  }}</ref>
 
Patients of all age groups may develop [disease name].
 
OR
 
The incidence of [disease name] increases with age; the median age at diagnosis is [#] years.
 
OR
 
[Disease name] commonly affects individuals younger than/older than [number of years] years of age.
 
OR
 
[Chronic disease name] is usually first diagnosed among [age group].
 
OR
 
[Acute disease name] commonly affects [age group].
 
 
 
There is no racial predilection to [disease name].
 
OR
 
[Disease name] usually affects individuals of the [race 1] race. [Race 2] individuals are less likely to develop [disease name].
 
 
 
[Disease name] affects men and women equally.
 
OR
 
[Gender 1] are more commonly affected by [disease name] than [gender 2]. The [gender 1] to [gender 2] ratio is approximately [number > 1] to 1.
 
 
 
The majority of [disease name] cases are reported in [geographical region].
 
OR
 
[Disease name] is a common/rare disease that tends to affect [patient population 1] and [patient population 2].


==Risk Factors==
==Risk Factors==

Revision as of 16:13, 9 March 2021

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Nuha Al-Howthi, MD[2]

Synonyms and keywords:Pregnancy loss, miscarriage, spontaneous abortion

Overview

Historical Perspective

  • Abortion means termination of a pregnancy and it has been known since ancient times.
  • Abortion was first describe by ancient Egyptian medical text as the Ebers Papyrus in 1550 BCE, suggests that an abortion can be induced with the use of a plant-fiber tampon coated with honey and crushed dates.[1]
  • During the ancient Egyptians, Persians, and Romans eras, abortion was practiced although it was never explicitly mentioned in any book of the Judeo-Christian Bible.[2]
  • In the fourth century BCE, Niddah 23a, a chapter of the Babylonian Talmud, review about abortion as determining whether a woman is "unclean." and permitting abortion during early pregnancy.[3]

" A woman can only abort something in the shape of a stone, and that can only be described as a lump."

  • On 11th century BCE, Code of Assura '' a harsh set of laws restricting women in general'' was the earliest legal ban on abortion by forcing the death penalty on married women who obtain abortions without permission of their husbands.[4]
  • On the fifth century BCE Hippocratic Oath prohibit physicians from inducing elective abortions.[5]
  • On 19th century surgical abortion become common and Hegar dilator in 1879 who invent dilation-and-curettage (D&C).[6]
  • On November 18,1920, the Commissariats of Health and Justice legalized abortion in Soviet hospitals.[7][8]
  • In 1970, Hawaii, New York, Alaska and Washington declared their abortion laws. Hawaii was the first state to legalize abortions and New York allowed abortions up to the 24th week of pregnancy.[9]


Classification

Abortion can be classified into the following:[10] [11][12]


Abortion type Characterestics
Early Threatened Abortion before 12 weeks gestation

Symptoms:

Cervix:

Ultrasound:

Late Inevitable Abortion between 12 and 20 weeks gestation

Symptoms:

Cervix:

Ultrasound:

Spontaneous Noninduced abortion
Missed Undetected death of an embryo or a fetus that is not expelled and that causes no bleeding (also called blighted ovum, anembryonic pregnancy, or intrauterine embryonic demise)

Symptoms: variable, asymptomatic, light vaginal bleeding

Cervix: closed

Ultrasound: Nonviable fetus

Inevitable Vaginal bleeding or rupture of the membranes accompanied by dilation of the cervix

Symptoms: Vaginal bleeding, uterine cramps,

Cervix: Open

Ultrasound: Intrauterine fetus with possible heartbeats, ruptured or collapsed gestational sac

Incomplete Expulsion of some products of conception

Symptoms: Vaginal bleeding with large clots or tissue, uterine cramps, some products of conception can be visualized in the dilated cervical os

Cervix: Open

Ultrasound: products of conception in the cervix

Threatened Vaginal bleeding occurring before 20 weeks gestation without cervical dilation and indicating that spontaneous abortion may occur

Symptoms: variable amount of bleeding

Cervix: closed

Ultrasound: viable pregnancy

Septic Serious infection of the uterine contents during or shortly before or after an abortion. usually after induced abortion and rarely after spontaneous abortion

Symptoms: Fever, malaise, signs of sepsis, foul vaginal discharge, cervical motion tenderness, uterine tenderness, can be life threatening

Cervix: open

Ultrasound: retained products of conception

Complete Expulsion of all products of conception

Symptoms:

Cervix:

Ultrasound:

Recurrent or habitual ≥ 2 to 3 consecutive spontaneous abortions

Symptoms:

Cervix:

Ultrasound:

Therapeutic Termination of pregnancy because the woman’s life or health is endangered or because the fetus is dead or has malformations incompatible with life
Induced Termination of pregnancy for medical or elective reasons


There is no established system for the classification of [disease name].

OR

[Disease name] may be classified according to [classification method] into [number] subtypes/groups: [group1], [group2], [group3], and [group4].

OR

[Disease name] may be classified into [large number > 6] subtypes based on [classification method 1], [classification method 2], and [classification method 3]. [Disease name] may be classified into several subtypes based on [classification method 1], [classification method 2], and [classification method 3].

OR

Based on the duration of symptoms, [disease name] may be classified as either acute or chronic.

OR

If the staging system involves specific and characteristic findings and features: According to the [staging system + reference], there are [number] stages of [malignancy name] based on the [finding1], [finding2], and [finding3]. Each stage is assigned a [letter/number1] and a [letter/number2] that designate the [feature1] and [feature2].

OR

The staging of [malignancy name] is based on the [staging system].

OR

There is no established system for the staging of [malignancy name].

Pathophysiology

The exact pathogenesis of [disease name] is not fully understood.

OR

It is thought that [disease name] is the result of / is mediated by / is produced by / is caused by either [hypothesis 1], [hypothesis 2], or [hypothesis 3].

OR

[Pathogen name] is usually transmitted via the [transmission route] route to the human host.

OR

Following transmission/ingestion, the [pathogen] uses the [entry site] to invade the [cell name] cell.

OR


[Disease or malignancy name] arises from [cell name]s, which are [cell type] cells that are normally involved in [function of cells].

OR

The progression to [disease name] usually involves the [molecular pathway].

OR

The pathophysiology of [disease/malignancy] depends on the histological subtype.

Causes

Early Pregnancy Loss[13][14]

Fetal causes:

  • Genetic or chromosomal abnormalities (45,X karyotype, Trisomies (Trisomy 16 is the most common))
  • Teratogenic and mutagenic factors

Maternal causes:

  • Genetic: Maternal age is directly related to the aneuploidy risk,
  • Parental chromosomal anomaly balanced translocation

Acute causes:

  • Corpus luteum deficiency
  • Active infection such as rubella virus, cytomegalovirus

Chronic maternal comorbidities

  • Antiphospholipid syndrome
  • Severe hypertension
  • Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)
  • Renal disease
  • Poorly controlled diabetes mellitus
  • Polycystic ovary syndrome

Differentiating abortion from other Diseases

[Disease name] must be differentiated from other diseases that cause [clinical feature 1], [clinical feature 2], and [clinical feature 3], such as [differential dx1], [differential dx2], and [differential dx3].

OR

[Disease name] must be differentiated from [[differential dx1], [differential dx2], and [differential dx3].

Epidemiology and Demographics

  • The incidence of abortion Worldwide, was estimated to be 35 per 1000 women ages 15 to 44 from 2010 to 2014.[15]
  • The rate in resource-rich countries was 27 per 1000 and in resource-limited countries was 37 per 1000. The incidence was highest in the Caribbean (65 per 1000), and the lowest in North America (17 per 1000). [16]
  • In the United States, one in four women will have an abortion during their reproductive life.[16]
  • The incidence of abortion is approximately 31%, the true incidence of abortion is difficult to ascertain, as many losses are not recognized[17][18]
  • The rate of abortion influenced by maternal age and history of prior pregnancy loss.[19] 15% of women experience sporadic abortion, 2% of pregnant women experience two consecutive abortion and only 0.4 to 1% have three consecutive abortion. [20]
  • The incidence of Abortions in the united state were highest in women ages 20 to 24 (19.1 per 1000 women) and 25 to 29 (18.5 per 1000 women)[21]
  • Most abortions were done in women who were unmarried (85%) and had one or more children (59%).[21]
  • Abortion rates in individuals of non-Hispanic White were 38.7 ,20.0 for Hispanic, and 7.7 for other races per 1000 women. [21]
  • In the United States in 2018, 78% of abortions occur at 9 weeks or earlier, 92% at 13 weeks or earlier, and 8% at or after 14 weeks.[22]

Risk Factors

Independent risk factors:[23]

  • Advanced age
  • Extremes of age
  • Anxiety
  • Advanced paternal age

Social causes

  • Tobacco
  • Alcohol
  • Cocaine
  • High doses Caffeine

Screening

There is insufficient evidence to recommend routine screening for [disease/malignancy].

OR

According to the [guideline name], screening for [disease name] is not recommended.

OR

According to the [guideline name], screening for [disease name] by [test 1] is recommended every [duration] among patients with [condition 1], [condition 2], and [condition 3].

Natural History, Complications, and Prognosis

If left untreated, [#]% of patients with [disease name] may progress to develop [manifestation 1], [manifestation 2], and [manifestation 3].

OR

Common complications of [disease name] include [complication 1], [complication 2], and [complication 3].

OR

Prognosis is generally excellent/good/poor, and the 1/5/10-year mortality/survival rate of patients with [disease name] is approximately [#]%.

Diagnosis

Diagnostic Study of Choice

The diagnosis of [disease name] is made when at least [number] of the following [number] diagnostic criteria are met: [criterion 1], [criterion 2], [criterion 3], and [criterion 4].

OR

The diagnosis of [disease name] is based on the [criteria name] criteria, which include [criterion 1], [criterion 2], and [criterion 3].

OR

The diagnosis of [disease name] is based on the [definition name] definition, which includes [criterion 1], [criterion 2], and [criterion 3].

OR

There are no established criteria for the diagnosis of [disease name].

History and Symptoms

The majority of patients with [disease name] are asymptomatic.

OR

The hallmark of [disease name] is [finding]. A positive history of [finding 1] and [finding 2] is suggestive of [disease name]. The most common symptoms of [disease name] include [symptom 1], [symptom 2], and [symptom 3]. Common symptoms of [disease] include [symptom 1], [symptom 2], and [symptom 3]. Less common symptoms of [disease name] include [symptom 1], [symptom 2], and [symptom 3].

Physical Examination

Patients with [disease name] usually appear [general appearance]. Physical examination of patients with [disease name] is usually remarkable for [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

OR

Common physical examination findings of [disease name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

OR

The presence of [finding(s)] on physical examination is diagnostic of [disease name].

OR

The presence of [finding(s)] on physical examination is highly suggestive of [disease name].

Laboratory Findings

An elevated/reduced concentration of serum/blood/urinary/CSF/other [lab test] is diagnostic of [disease name].

OR

Laboratory findings consistent with the diagnosis of [disease name] include [abnormal test 1], [abnormal test 2], and [abnormal test 3].

OR

[Test] is usually normal among patients with [disease name].

OR

Some patients with [disease name] may have elevated/reduced concentration of [test], which is usually suggestive of [progression/complication].

OR

There are no diagnostic laboratory findings associated with [disease name].

Electrocardiogram

There are no ECG findings associated with [disease name].

OR

An ECG may be helpful in the diagnosis of [disease name]. Findings on an ECG suggestive of/diagnostic of [disease name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

X-ray

There are no x-ray findings associated with [disease name].

OR

An x-ray may be helpful in the diagnosis of [disease name]. Findings on an x-ray suggestive of/diagnostic of [disease name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

OR

There are no x-ray findings associated with [disease name]. However, an x-ray may be helpful in the diagnosis of complications of [disease name], which include [complication 1], [complication 2], and [complication 3].

Echocardiography or Ultrasound

There are no echocardiography/ultrasound findings associated with [disease name].

OR

Echocardiography/ultrasound may be helpful in the diagnosis of [disease name]. Findings on an echocardiography/ultrasound suggestive of/diagnostic of [disease name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

OR

There are no echocardiography/ultrasound findings associated with [disease name]. However, an echocardiography/ultrasound may be helpful in the diagnosis of complications of [disease name], which include [complication 1], [complication 2], and [complication 3].

CT scan

There are no CT scan findings associated with [disease name].

OR

[Location] CT scan may be helpful in the diagnosis of [disease name]. Findings on CT scan suggestive of/diagnostic of [disease name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

OR

There are no CT scan findings associated with [disease name]. However, a CT scan may be helpful in the diagnosis of complications of [disease name], which include [complication 1], [complication 2], and [complication 3].

MRI

There are no MRI findings associated with [disease name].

OR

[Location] MRI may be helpful in the diagnosis of [disease name]. Findings on MRI suggestive of/diagnostic of [disease name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

OR

There are no MRI findings associated with [disease name]. However, a MRI may be helpful in the diagnosis of complications of [disease name], which include [complication 1], [complication 2], and [complication 3].

Other Imaging Findings

There are no other imaging findings associated with [disease name].

OR

[Imaging modality] may be helpful in the diagnosis of [disease name]. Findings on an [imaging modality] suggestive of/diagnostic of [disease name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

Other Diagnostic Studies

There are no other diagnostic studies associated with [disease name].

OR

[Diagnostic study] may be helpful in the diagnosis of [disease name]. Findings suggestive of/diagnostic of [disease name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

OR

Other diagnostic studies for [disease name] include [diagnostic study 1], which demonstrates [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3], and [diagnostic study 2], which demonstrates [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

Treatment

Medical Therapy

There is no treatment for [disease name]; the mainstay of therapy is supportive care.

OR

Supportive therapy for [disease name] includes [therapy 1], [therapy 2], and [therapy 3].

OR

The majority of cases of [disease name] are self-limited and require only supportive care.

OR

[Disease name] is a medical emergency and requires prompt treatment.

OR

The mainstay of treatment for [disease name] is [therapy].

OR   The optimal therapy for [malignancy name] depends on the stage at diagnosis.

OR

[Therapy] is recommended among all patients who develop [disease name].

OR

Pharmacologic medical therapy is recommended among patients with [disease subclass 1], [disease subclass 2], and [disease subclass 3].

OR

Pharmacologic medical therapies for [disease name] include (either) [therapy 1], [therapy 2], and/or [therapy 3].

OR

Empiric therapy for [disease name] depends on [disease factor 1] and [disease factor 2].

OR

Patients with [disease subclass 1] are treated with [therapy 1], whereas patients with [disease subclass 2] are treated with [therapy 2].

Surgery

Surgical intervention is not recommended for the management of [disease name].

OR

Surgery is not the first-line treatment option for patients with [disease name]. Surgery is usually reserved for patients with either [indication 1], [indication 2], and [indication 3]

OR

The mainstay of treatment for [disease name] is medical therapy. Surgery is usually reserved for patients with either [indication 1], [indication 2], and/or [indication 3].

OR

The feasibility of surgery depends on the stage of [malignancy] at diagnosis.

OR

Surgery is the mainstay of treatment for [disease or malignancy].

Primary Prevention

There are no established measures for the primary prevention of [disease name].

OR

There are no available vaccines against [disease name].

OR

Effective measures for the primary prevention of [disease name] include [measure1], [measure2], and [measure3].

OR

[Vaccine name] vaccine is recommended for [patient population] to prevent [disease name]. Other primary prevention strategies include [strategy 1], [strategy 2], and [strategy 3].

Secondary Prevention

There are no established measures for the secondary prevention of [disease name].

OR

Effective measures for the secondary prevention of [disease name] include [strategy 1], [strategy 2], and [strategy 3].

References

  1. "The Ancient History of Abortion and When it Began".
  2. "The Ancient History of Abortion and When it Began".
  3. "The Ancient History of Abortion and When it Began".
  4. "Internet History Sourcebooks".
  5. "The Hippocratic Oath in Roe v. Wade | by Tara Mulder | EIDOLON".
  6. "The Ancient History of Abortion and When it Began".
  7. "docshare03.docshare.tips" (PDF).
  8. Endres, Richard J. (1971). "Abortion in perspective". American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology. 111 (3): 436–439. doi:10.1016/0002-9378(71)90791-5. ISSN 0002-9378.
  9. "docshare03.docshare.tips" (PDF).
  10. Rushton DI (1978). "Simplified classification of spontaneous abortions". J Med Genet. 15 (1): 1–9. doi:10.1136/jmg.15.1.1. PMC 1012814. PMID 564967.
  11. Ganatra B, Gerdts C, Rossier C, Johnson BR, Tunçalp Ö, Assifi A; et al. (2017). "Global, regional, and subregional classification of abortions by safety, 2010-14: estimates from a Bayesian hierarchical model". Lancet. 390 (10110): 2372–2381. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31794-4. PMC 5711001. PMID 28964589.
  12. Fujikura T, Froehlich LA, Driscoll SG (1966). "A simplified anatomic classification of abortions". Am J Obstet Gynecol. 95 (7): 902–5. doi:10.1016/0002-9378(66)90537-0. PMID 5914126.
  13. Pereza N, Ostojić S, Kapović M, Peterlin B (2017). "Systematic review and meta-analysis of genetic association studies in idiopathic recurrent spontaneous abortion". Fertil Steril. 107 (1): 150–159.e2. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2016.10.007. PMID 27842992.
  14. Barut MU, Bozkurt M, Kahraman M, Yıldırım E, Imirzalioğlu N, Kubar A; et al. (2018). "Thrombophilia and Recurrent Pregnancy Loss: The Enigma Continues". Med Sci Monit. 24: 4288–4294. doi:10.12659/MSM.908832. PMC 6045916. PMID 29932168.
  15. Sedgh G, Bearak J, Singh S, Bankole A, Popinchalk A, Ganatra B; et al. (2016). "Abortion incidence between 1990 and 2014: global, regional, and subregional levels and trends". Lancet. 388 (10041): 258–67. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)30380-4. PMC 5498988. PMID 27179755.
  16. 16.0 16.1 Jones RK, Jerman J (2017). "Abortion Incidence and Service Availability In the United States, 2014". Perspect Sex Reprod Health. 49 (1): 17–27. doi:10.1363/psrh.12015. PMC 5487028. PMID 28094905.
  17. Magnus MC, Wilcox AJ, Morken NH, Weinberg CR, Håberg SE (2019). "Role of maternal age and pregnancy history in risk of miscarriage: prospective register based study". BMJ. 364: l869. doi:10.1136/bmj.l869. PMC 6425455. PMID 30894356.
  18. Wilcox AJ, Weinberg CR, O'Connor JF, Baird DD, Schlatterer JP, Canfield RE; et al. (1988). "Incidence of early loss of pregnancy". N Engl J Med. 319 (4): 189–94. doi:10.1056/NEJM198807283190401. PMID 3393170.
  19. Magnus MC, Wilcox AJ, Morken NH, Weinberg CR, Håberg SE (2019). "Role of maternal age and pregnancy history in risk of miscarriage: prospective register based study". BMJ. 364: l869. doi:10.1136/bmj.l869. PMC 6425455. PMID 30894356.
  20. Salat-Baroux J (1988). "[Recurrent spontaneous abortions]". Reprod Nutr Dev. 28 (6B): 1555–68. PMID 3073445.
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