Prostate cancer screening: Difference between revisions
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{{Prostate cancer}} | {{Prostate cancer}} | ||
==Screening== | ==Screening== | ||
Prostate cancer [[screening (medicine)|screening]] is an attempt to find unsuspected cancers. Screening tests may lead to more specific follow-up tests such as a [[biopsy]], where small cores of the prostate are removed for closer study. Prostate cancer screening options include the [[Rectal examination|digital rectal exam]] and the [[prostate specific antigen]] (PSA) blood test. Screening for prostate cancer is controversial because it is not clear if the benefits of screening outweigh the risks of follow-up diagnostic tests and cancer treatments. | Prostate cancer [[screening (medicine)|screening]] is an attempt to find unsuspected cancers. Screening tests may lead to more specific follow-up tests such as a [[biopsy]], where small cores of the prostate are removed for closer study. Prostate cancer screening options include the [[Rectal examination|digital rectal exam]] and the [[prostate specific antigen]] (PSA) blood test. Screening for prostate cancer is controversial because it is not clear if the benefits of screening outweigh the risks of follow-up diagnostic tests and cancer treatments. | ||
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Several medical societies have not found sufficient evidence to support routine screening for prostate cancer - but the American Urological Association supports annual screening and digital examination for men over 50 years old - and starting earlier for 'men at high risk (those with a family history of prostate cancer or African American men)'. <ref>[http://www.auanet.org/content/guidelines-and-quality-care/policy-statements/e/early-detection-of-prostate-cancer.cfm ''Early Detection of Prostate Cancer'', American Urological Association, Washington, D.C., revised: October 2008].Accessed: 12-01-2008 </ref> | Several medical societies have not found sufficient evidence to support routine screening for prostate cancer - but the American Urological Association supports annual screening and digital examination for men over 50 years old - and starting earlier for 'men at high risk (those with a family history of prostate cancer or African American men)'. <ref>[http://www.auanet.org/content/guidelines-and-quality-care/policy-statements/e/early-detection-of-prostate-cancer.cfm ''Early Detection of Prostate Cancer'', American Urological Association, Washington, D.C., revised: October 2008].Accessed: 12-01-2008 </ref> | ||
* In 2002, the [[US Preventive Services Task Force|U.S. Preventive Services Task Force]] (USPSTF) concluded that the evidence was insufficient to recommend for or against routine screening for prostate cancer using PSA testing or digital rectal examination (DRE). | * In 2002, the [[US Preventive Services Task Force|U.S. Preventive Services Task Force]] (USPSTF) concluded that the evidence was insufficient to recommend for or against routine screening for prostate cancer using PSA testing or digital rectal examination (DRE).<ref name="USPSTF 2002">{{cite web |author=US Preventive Services Task Force |month=December |year=2002 |title=Screening for Prostate Cancer |publisher=Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality |url=http://www.ahrq.gov/clinic/uspstf/uspsprca.htm}} | ||
{{cite journal |author=[[US Preventive Services Task Force|USPSTF]] |month=December 3, |year=2002 |title=Screening for prostate cancer: recommendation and rationale |journal=[[Annals of Internal Medicine|Ann Intern Med]] |volume=137 |issue=11 |pages=915–6 |pmid=12458992 |url=http://www.annals.org/cgi/reprint/137/11/915.pdf|format=PDF}}<br> | {{cite journal |author=[[US Preventive Services Task Force|USPSTF]] |month=December 3, |year=2002 |title=Screening for prostate cancer: recommendation and rationale |journal=[[Annals of Internal Medicine|Ann Intern Med]] |volume=137 |issue=11 |pages=915–6 |pmid=12458992 |url=http://www.annals.org/cgi/reprint/137/11/915.pdf|format=PDF}}<br> | ||
{{cite journal |author=Harris R, Lohr KN |month=December 3, |year=2002 |title=Screening for prostate cancer: an update of the evidence for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force |journal=[[Annals of Internal Medicine|Ann Intern Med]] |volume=137 |issue=11 |pages=917–29 |pmid=12458993 |url=http://www.annals.org/cgi/reprint/137/11/917.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref> The previous 1995 USPSTF recommendation was against routine screening. | {{cite journal |author=Harris R, Lohr KN |month=December 3, |year=2002 |title=Screening for prostate cancer: an update of the evidence for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force |journal=[[Annals of Internal Medicine|Ann Intern Med]] |volume=137 |issue=11 |pages=917–29 |pmid=12458993 |url=http://www.annals.org/cgi/reprint/137/11/917.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref> The previous 1995 USPSTF recommendation was against routine screening. | ||
* In 1997, [[American Cancer Society]] (ACS) guidelines began recommending that beginning at age 50 (age 45 for African-American men and men with a family history of prostate cancer, and since 2001, age 40 for men with a very strong family history of prostate cancer), PSA testing and DRE be ''offered'' annually to men who have a life-expectancy of 10 or more years (average life expectancy is 10 years or more for U.S. men under age 76) | * In 1997, [[American Cancer Society]] (ACS) guidelines began recommending that beginning at age 50 (age 45 for African-American men and men with a family history of prostate cancer, and since 2001, age 40 for men with a very strong family history of prostate cancer), PSA testing and DRE be ''offered'' annually to men who have a life-expectancy of 10 or more years (average life expectancy is 10 years or more for U.S. men under age 76) | ||
<ref name="US life table 2003">{{cite journal |author=Arias E |month=April 19, |year=2006 |title=United States Life Tables, 2003 |journal=Natl Vital Stat Rep |volume=54 |issue=14 |pages=1–40 |pmid=16681183 |url=http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr54/nvsr54_14.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref> along with information on the risks and benefits of screening.<ref name="ACS guidelines">{{cite journal |author=von Eschenbach A, Ho R, Murphy GP, Cunningham M, Lins N |month=September-October |year=1997 |title=American Cancer Society guideline for the early detection of prostate cancer: update 1997 |journal=CA Cancer J Clin |volume=47 |issue=5 |pages=261–4 |pmid=9314820 |url=http://caonline.amcancersoc.org/cgi/reprint/47/5/261.pdf |format=PDF|doi=10.3322/canjclin.47.5.261}}{{cite web |author=[[American Cancer Society|ACS]] |month=March 28, |year=2007 |title=Prostate Cancer: Early Detection |url=http://www.cancer.org/docroot/PED/content/PED_2_3X_ACS_Cancer_Detection_Guidelines_36.asp |accessdate=2007-11-19}}<br> | |||
{{cite journal |author=Smith RA, Cokkinides V, Eyre HJ |month=March-April |year=2007 |title=Cancer screening in the United States, 2007: a review of current guidelines, practices, and prospects |journal=CA Cancer J Clin |volume=57 |issue=2 |pages=90–104 |pmid=17392386 |url=http://caonline.amcancersoc.org/cgi/reprint/57/2/90.pdf|format=PDF}}<br> | {{cite journal |author=Smith RA, Cokkinides V, Eyre HJ |month=March-April |year=2007 |title=Cancer screening in the United States, 2007: a review of current guidelines, practices, and prospects |journal=CA Cancer J Clin |volume=57 |issue=2 |pages=90–104 |pmid=17392386 |url=http://caonline.amcancersoc.org/cgi/reprint/57/2/90.pdf|format=PDF}}<br> | ||
{{cite journal |author=Smith RA, Cokkinides V, Eyre HJ |month=January-February |year=2006 |title=American Cancer Society guidelines for the early detection of cancer, 2006 |journal=CA Cancer J Clin |volume=56 |issue=1 |pages=11–25 |pmid=16449183 |url=http://caonline.amcancersoc.org/cgi/reprint/57/2/90.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref> The previous ACS recommendations since 1980 had been for routine screening for prostate cancer with DRE annually beginning at age 40, and since 1992 had been for routine screening with DRE and PSA testing annually beginning at age 50.<!-- | {{cite journal |author=Smith RA, Cokkinides V, Eyre HJ |month=January-February |year=2006 |title=American Cancer Society guidelines for the early detection of cancer, 2006 |journal=CA Cancer J Clin |volume=56 |issue=1 |pages=11–25 |pmid=16449183 |url=http://caonline.amcancersoc.org/cgi/reprint/57/2/90.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref> The previous ACS recommendations since 1980 had been for routine screening for prostate cancer with DRE annually beginning at age 40, and since 1992 had been for routine screening with DRE and PSA testing annually beginning at age 50.<!-- | ||
<ref name="ACS history">{{cite web |author=[[American Cancer Society|ACS]] |month=March 29, |year=2007 |title=Chronological History of ACS Recommendations on Early Detection of Cancer |url=http://www.cancer.org/docroot/PED/content/PED_2_3X_Chronological_History_of_ACS_Recommendations_on_Early_Detection_of_Cancer.asp}}</ref> | |||
* The 2007 [[National Comprehensive Cancer Network]] (NCCN) guideline recommends ''offering'' a baseline PSA test and DRE at ages 40 and 45 and annual PSA testing and DRE beginning at age 50 (with annual PSA testing and DRE beginning at age 40 for African-American men, men with a family history of prostate cancer, and men with a PSA ≥ 0.6 ng/mL at age 40 or PSA > 0.6 ng/mL at age 45) through age 80, along with information on the risks and benefits of screening. Biopsy is recommended if DRE is positive or PSA ≥ 4 ng/mL, and biopsy considered if PSA > 2.5 ng/mL or PSA velocity ≥ 0.35 ng/mL/year when PSA ≤ 2.5 ng/mL. | * The 2007 [[National Comprehensive Cancer Network]] (NCCN) guideline recommends ''offering'' a baseline PSA test and DRE at ages 40 and 45 and annual PSA testing and DRE beginning at age 50 (with annual PSA testing and DRE beginning at age 40 for African-American men, men with a family history of prostate cancer, and men with a PSA ≥ 0.6 ng/mL at age 40 or PSA > 0.6 ng/mL at age 45) through age 80, along with information on the risks and benefits of screening. Biopsy is recommended if DRE is positive or PSA ≥ 4 ng/mL, and biopsy considered if PSA > 2.5 ng/mL or PSA velocity ≥ 0.35 ng/mL/year when PSA ≤ 2.5 ng/mL.<ref name="NCCN 2007">{{cite web |author=[[National Comprehensive Cancer Network|NCCN]] |month=May 10, |year=2007 |title=Prostate Cancer Early Detection V.2.2007 |work=NCCN Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology |url=http://www.nccn.org/professionals/physician_gls/PDF/prostate_detection.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref> | ||
* Some U.S. radiation oncologists and medical oncologists who specialize in treating prostate cancer recommend obtaining a baseline PSA in all men at age 35.<ref name="D'Amico 2004">{{cite web |author= |month=July |year=2004 |title=Study suggests value of regular PSA tests for tracking prostate cancer |publisher=[[Dana-Farber Cancer Institute]] |url=http://www.hms.harvard.edu/news/pressreleases/df/0704prostate_test.html}} | |||
* Some U.S. radiation oncologists and medical oncologists who specialize in treating prostate cancer recommend obtaining a baseline PSA in all men at age 35 | {{cite journal |author=Kladko B |month=August 15, |year=2005 |title=Prostate cancer test gets another look |journal=The Boston Globe |url=http://www.boston.com/yourlife/health/men/articles/2005/08/15/prostate_cancer_test_gets_another_look/?page=full}}</ref> or beginning annual PSA testing in high risk men at age 35.<ref name="Strum 2005">{{cite journal |author=Strum SB, Pogliano D |month=May |year=2005 |title=What every doctor who treats male patients should know |journal=PCRI Insights |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=4–5 |url=http://www.prostate-cancer.org/resource/pdf/Is8-2.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref> | ||
* The American Urological Association Patient Guide to Prostate Cancer.<ref name="AUA Patient Guide 2008">{{cite web |author=American Urological Association (AUA) |year=2008 |title=Prostate Cancer Patient Guide |work=AUA Patient Guidelines |url=http://www.auanet.org/guidelines/patient_guides/pc08.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref> | |||
{{cite journal |author=Kladko B |month=August 15, |year=2005 |title=Prostate cancer test gets another look |journal=The Boston Globe |url=http://www.boston.com/yourlife/health/men/articles/2005/08/15/prostate_cancer_test_gets_another_look/?page=full}}</ref> or beginning annual PSA testing in high risk men at age 35. | |||
* The American Urological Association Patient Guide to Prostate Cancer. | |||
Since there is no general agreement that the benefits of PSA screening outweigh the harms, the consensus is that clinicians use a process of shared decision-making that includes discussing with patients the risks of prostate cancer, the potential benefits and harms of screening, and involving the patients in the decision. | Since there is no general agreement that the benefits of PSA screening outweigh the harms, the consensus is that clinicians use a process of shared decision-making that includes discussing with patients the risks of prostate cancer, the potential benefits and harms of screening, and involving the patients in the decision.<ref name="Ross 2004">{{cite journal |author=Ross LE, Coates RJ, Breen N, Uhler RJ, Potosky AL, Blackman D |year=2004 |title=Prostate-specific antigen test use reported in the 2000 National Health Interview Survey |journal=Prev Med |volume=38 |issue=6 |pages=732–44 |pmid=15193893 | doi = 10.1016/j.ypmed.2004.01.005}}</ref> | ||
However, because PSA screening is widespread in the United States, following the recommendations of major scientific and medical organizations to use shared decision-making is legally perilous in some U.S. states. | However, because PSA screening is widespread in the United States, following the recommendations of major scientific and medical organizations to use shared decision-making is legally perilous in some U.S. states.<ref name="Lewis 2007">{{cite journal |author=Lewis MH, Gohagan JK, Merenstein DJ |year=2007 |title=The locality rule and the physician's dilemma: local medical practices vs the national standard of care |journal=[[Journal of the American Medical Association|JAMA]] |volume=297 |issue=23 |pages=2633–7 |pmid=17579232 |doi=10.1001/jama.297.23.2633}}</ref> | ||
In 2003, a Virginia jury found a [[general practitioner#United States|family practice]] [[residency (medicine)|residency program]] guilty of [[medical malpractice|malpractice]] and liable for $1 million for following national [[medical guideline|guideline]]s and using shared decision-making, thereby allowing a patient (subsequently found to have a high PSA and incurable advanced prostate cancer) to decline a screening PSA test, instead of routinely ordering without discussion PSA tests in all men ≥ 50 years of age as four local physicians testified was their practice, and was accepted by the jury as the local [[standard of care]].<ref name="Mernstein 2004">{{cite journal |author=Merenstein D |year=2004 |title=Winners and losers |journal=[[Journal of the American Medical Association|JAMA]] |volume=291 |issue=1 |pages=15–6 |pmid=14709561 |doi=10.1001/jama.291.1.15}}</ref> | |||
In 2003, a Virginia jury found a [[general practitioner#United States|family practice]] [[residency (medicine)|residency program]] guilty of [[medical malpractice|malpractice]] and liable for $1 million for following national [[medical guideline|guideline]]s and using shared decision-making, thereby allowing a patient (subsequently found to have a high PSA and incurable advanced prostate cancer) to decline a screening PSA test, instead of routinely ordering without discussion PSA tests in all men ≥ 50 years of age as four local physicians testified was their practice, and was accepted by the jury as the local [[standard of care]]. | |||
An estimated 20 million PSA tests are done per year in North America and possibly 20 million more outside of North America. | An estimated 20 million PSA tests are done per year in North America and possibly 20 million more outside of North America.<ref name="De Angelis 2007">{{cite journal |author=De Angelis G, Rittenhouse HG, Mikolajczyk SD, Blair Shamel L, Semjonow A |year=2007 |title=Twenty years of PSA: from prostate antigen to tumor marker |journal=Rev Urol |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=113–23 |pmid=17934568 |url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?artid=2002501&blobtype=pdf}}</ref> | ||
* In 2000, 34.1% of all U.S. men age ≥ 50 had a ''screening'' PSA test within the past year and 56.8% reported ever having a PSA test.<ref name="Ross 2004"/> | |||
* In 2000, 34.1% of all U.S. men age ≥ 50 had a ''screening'' PSA test within the past year and 56.8% reported ever having a PSA test. | * In 2000, 33.6% of all U.S. men age 50–64 and 51.3% of men age ≥ 65 had a PSA test within the past year.<ref name="Swan 2003">{{cite journal |author=Swan J, Breen N, Coates RJ, Rimer BK, Lee NC |year=2003 |title=Progress in cancer screening practices in the United States: results from the 2000 National Health Interview Survey |journal=Cancer |volume=97 |issue=6 |pages=1528–40 |pmid=12627518 |url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/103521394/PDFSTART |doi=10.1002/cncr.11208}}</ref> | ||
* In 2000, 33.6% of all U.S. men age 50–64 and 51.3% of men age ≥ 65 had a PSA test within the past year. | |||
* In 2005, 33.5% of all U.S. men age 50–64 had a PSA test in the past year. | * In 2005, 33.5% of all U.S. men age 50–64 had a PSA test in the past year. | ||
** 37.5% of men with private [[health insurance#Health insurance in the United States|health insurance]], 20.8% of men with Medicaid insurance, 14.0% of currently [[Health care in the United States#Inequities|uninsured]] men, and 11.5% of men uninsured for > 12 months. | ** 37.5% of men with private [[health insurance#Health insurance in the United States|health insurance]], 20.8% of men with Medicaid insurance, 14.0% of currently [[Health care in the United States#Inequities|uninsured]] men, and 11.5% of men uninsured for > 12 months.<ref name="Ward 2008">{{cite journal |author=Ward E, Halpern M, Schrag N, Cokkinides V, DeSantis C, Bandi P, Siegel R, Stewart A, Jemal A |month=Jan-Feb |year=2008 |title=Association of insurance with cancer care utilization and outcomes |journal=CA Cancer J Clin |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=9–31 |url=http://caonline.amcancersoc.org/cgi/reprint/58/1/9.pdf |format=PDF|pmid=18096863 |doi=10.3322/CA.2007.0011}}</ref> | ||
* In 2000–2001, 34.1% of all Canadian men age ≥ 50 had a ''screening'' PSA test within the past year and 47.5% reported ever having a ''screening'' PSA test.<ref name="Beaulac 2006">{{cite journal |author=Beaulac JA, Fry RN, Onysko J |year=2006 |title=Lifetime and recent prostate specific antigen (PSA) screening of men for prostate cancer in Canada |journal=Can J Public Health |volume=97 |issue=3 |pages=171–6 |pmid=16827400}}</ref> | |||
* In 2000–2001, 34.1% of all Canadian men age ≥ 50 had a ''screening'' PSA test within the past year and 47.5% reported ever having a ''screening'' PSA test. | * Canadian men in Ontario were most likely to have had a PSA test within the past year and men in Alberta were least likely to have had a PSA test with the past year or ever.<ref name="Gibbons 2003">{{cite journal |author=Gibbons L, Waters C |month=May |year=2003 |title=Prostate cancer--testing, incidence, surgery and mortality |journal=Health Rep |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=9–20 |pmid=12816012 |url=http://www.statcan.ca/english/studies/82-003/archive/2003/14-3-a.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref> | ||
* Canadian men in Ontario were most likely to have had a PSA test within the past year and men in Alberta were least likely to have had a PSA test with the past year or ever. | |||
==Screening Methods== | ==Screening Methods== | ||
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The PSA test measures the blood level of [[prostate-specific antigen]], an [[enzyme]] produced by the prostate. Specifically, PSA is a [[serine protease]] similar to [[kallikrein]]. Its normal function is to liquify gelatinous semen after ejaculation, allowing [[Spermatozoon|spermatozoa]] to more easily navigate through the uterine [[cervix]]. | The PSA test measures the blood level of [[prostate-specific antigen]], an [[enzyme]] produced by the prostate. Specifically, PSA is a [[serine protease]] similar to [[kallikrein]]. Its normal function is to liquify gelatinous semen after ejaculation, allowing [[Spermatozoon|spermatozoa]] to more easily navigate through the uterine [[cervix]]. | ||
The risk of prostate cancer increases with increasing PSA levels. | The risk of prostate cancer increases with increasing PSA levels.<ref name="Catalona 2007">{{cite web |author=Catalona WJ |month=August 16, |year=2007 |title=How I manage a patient with a newly elevated PSA |work=2007 [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|CDC]] Cancer Conference |url=http://www.cdccancerconference.net/Presentations/ET2.0/ET2.0_Catalona.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref> 4 ng/mL was chosen arbitrarily as a decision level for biopsies in the clinical trial upon which the [[Food and Drug Administration|FDA]] in 1994 based adding prostate cancer detection in men age 50 and over as an approved indication for the first commercially available PSA test.<ref name="Kolota 2004">{{cite journal |author=Kolota G |month=May 30, |year=2004 |title=It was medical gospel, but it wasn't true |journal=The New York Times |pages=4.7 |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F05E5DD1E3EF933A05756C0A9629C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all}}<br> | ||
{{cite journal |author=Thompson IM, Pauler DK, Goodman PJ, Tangen CM, Lucia MS, Parnes HL, Minasian LM, Ford LG, Lippman SM, Crawford ED, Crowley JJ, Coltman CA Jr |month= May 27, |year=2004 |title=Prevalence of prostate cancer among men with a prostate-specific antigen level < or =4.0 ng per milliliter |journal=N Engl J Med |volume=350 |issue=22 |pages=2239–46 |pmid=15163773}}<br> | {{cite journal |author=Thompson IM, Pauler DK, Goodman PJ, Tangen CM, Lucia MS, Parnes HL, Minasian LM, Ford LG, Lippman SM, Crawford ED, Crowley JJ, Coltman CA Jr |month= May 27, |year=2004 |title=Prevalence of prostate cancer among men with a prostate-specific antigen level < or =4.0 ng per milliliter |journal=N Engl J Med |volume=350 |issue=22 |pages=2239–46 |pmid=15163773}}<br> | ||
{{cite journal |author=Carter HB |month= May 27, |year=2004 |title=Prostate cancers in men with low PSA levels--must we find them? |journal=N Engl J Med |volume=350 |issue=22 |pages=2292–4 |pmid=15163780 |doi=10.1056/NEJMe048003}}<br> | {{cite journal |author=Carter HB |month= May 27, |year=2004 |title=Prostate cancers in men with low PSA levels--must we find them? |journal=N Engl J Med |volume=350 |issue=22 |pages=2292–4 |pmid=15163780 |doi=10.1056/NEJMe048003}}<br> | ||
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[[Category:Types of cancer]] | [[Category:Types of cancer]] | ||
[[Category:Oncology]] | [[Category:Oncology]] | ||
[[Category: | [[Category:Needs overview]] | ||
[[Category:Primary care]] | |||
{{WH}} | {{WH}} | ||
{{WS}} | {{WS}} | ||
Revision as of 18:13, 16 April 2013
Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]
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Screening
Prostate cancer screening is an attempt to find unsuspected cancers. Screening tests may lead to more specific follow-up tests such as a biopsy, where small cores of the prostate are removed for closer study. Prostate cancer screening options include the digital rectal exam and the prostate specific antigen (PSA) blood test. Screening for prostate cancer is controversial because it is not clear if the benefits of screening outweigh the risks of follow-up diagnostic tests and cancer treatments.
Prostate cancer is usually a slow-growing cancer, very common among older men. In fact, most prostate cancers never grow to the point where they cause symptoms, and most men with prostate cancer die of other causes before prostate cancer has an impact on their lives. The PSA screening test may detect these small cancers that would never become life threatening. Doing the PSA test in these men may lead to overdiagnosis, including additional testing and treatment. Follow-up tests, such as prostate biopsy, may cause pain, bleeding and infection. Prostate cancer treatments may cause urinary incontinence and erectile dysfunction. Therefore, it is essential that the risks and benefits of diagnostic procedures and treatment be carefully considered before PSA screening.
Several medical societies have not found sufficient evidence to support routine screening for prostate cancer - but the American Urological Association supports annual screening and digital examination for men over 50 years old - and starting earlier for 'men at high risk (those with a family history of prostate cancer or African American men)'. [1]
- In 2002, the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) concluded that the evidence was insufficient to recommend for or against routine screening for prostate cancer using PSA testing or digital rectal examination (DRE).[2] The previous 1995 USPSTF recommendation was against routine screening.
- In 1997, American Cancer Society (ACS) guidelines began recommending that beginning at age 50 (age 45 for African-American men and men with a family history of prostate cancer, and since 2001, age 40 for men with a very strong family history of prostate cancer), PSA testing and DRE be offered annually to men who have a life-expectancy of 10 or more years (average life expectancy is 10 years or more for U.S. men under age 76)
[3] along with information on the risks and benefits of screening.[4] The previous ACS recommendations since 1980 had been for routine screening for prostate cancer with DRE annually beginning at age 40, and since 1992 had been for routine screening with DRE and PSA testing annually beginning at age 50.
- ↑ Early Detection of Prostate Cancer, American Urological Association, Washington, D.C., revised: October 2008.Accessed: 12-01-2008
- ↑ US Preventive Services Task Force (2002). "Screening for Prostate Cancer". Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (help) USPSTF (2002). "Screening for prostate cancer: recommendation and rationale" (PDF). Ann Intern Med. 137 (11): 915–6. PMID 12458992. Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help)
Harris R, Lohr KN (2002). "Screening for prostate cancer: an update of the evidence for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force" (PDF). Ann Intern Med. 137 (11): 917–29. PMID 12458993. Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - ↑ Arias E (2006). "United States Life Tables, 2003" (PDF). Natl Vital Stat Rep. 54 (14): 1–40. PMID 16681183. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (help) - ↑ von Eschenbach A, Ho R, Murphy GP, Cunningham M, Lins N (1997). "American Cancer Society guideline for the early detection of prostate cancer: update 1997" (PDF). CA Cancer J Clin. 47 (5): 261–4. doi:10.3322/canjclin.47.5.261. PMID 9314820. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (help)ACS (2007). "Prostate Cancer: Early Detection". Retrieved 2007-11-19. Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help)
Smith RA, Cokkinides V, Eyre HJ (2007). "Cancer screening in the United States, 2007: a review of current guidelines, practices, and prospects" (PDF). CA Cancer J Clin. 57 (2): 90–104. PMID 17392386. Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help)
Smith RA, Cokkinides V, Eyre HJ (2006). "American Cancer Society guidelines for the early detection of cancer, 2006" (PDF). CA Cancer J Clin. 56 (1): 11–25. PMID 16449183. Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help)