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*The sensitivity of sestamibi scintigraphy can be increased by using it concomitantly with neck ultrasound and/or SPECT. <ref name="pmid18794320">{{cite journal| author=Eslamy HK, Ziessman HA| title=Parathyroid scintigraphy in patients with primary hyperparathyroidism: 99mTc sestamibi SPECT and SPECT/CT. | journal=Radiographics | year= 2008 | volume= 28 | issue= 5 | pages= 1461-76 | pmid=18794320 | doi=10.1148/rg.285075055 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18794320  }} </ref><ref name="pmid12153604">{{cite journal| author=Haber RS, Kim CK, Inabnet WB| title=Ultrasonography for preoperative localization of enlarged parathyroid glands in primary hyperparathyroidism: comparison with (99m)technetium sestamibi scintigraphy. | journal=Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) | year= 2002 | volume= 57 | issue= 2 | pages= 241-9 | pmid=12153604 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12153604  }} </ref>
*The sensitivity of sestamibi scintigraphy can be increased by using it concomitantly with neck ultrasound and/or SPECT. <ref name="pmid18794320">{{cite journal| author=Eslamy HK, Ziessman HA| title=Parathyroid scintigraphy in patients with primary hyperparathyroidism: 99mTc sestamibi SPECT and SPECT/CT. | journal=Radiographics | year= 2008 | volume= 28 | issue= 5 | pages= 1461-76 | pmid=18794320 | doi=10.1148/rg.285075055 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18794320  }} </ref><ref name="pmid12153604">{{cite journal| author=Haber RS, Kim CK, Inabnet WB| title=Ultrasonography for preoperative localization of enlarged parathyroid glands in primary hyperparathyroidism: comparison with (99m)technetium sestamibi scintigraphy. | journal=Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) | year= 2002 | volume= 57 | issue= 2 | pages= 241-9 | pmid=12153604 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12153604  }} </ref>
*The sensitivity of sestamibi scintigraphy is 80% - 90%.<ref name="pmid8678959">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chapuis Y, Fulla Y, Bonnichon P, Tarla E, Abboud B, Pitre J, Richard B |title=Values of ultrasonography, sestamibi scintigraphy, and intraoperative measurement of 1-84 PTH for unilateral neck exploration of primary hyperparathyroidism |journal=World J Surg |volume=20 |issue=7 |pages=835–9; discussion 839–40 |year=1996 |pmid=8678959 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid17685957">{{cite journal |vauthors=Prasannan S, Davies G, Bochner M, Kollias J, Malycha P |title=Minimally invasive parathyroidectomy using surgeon-performed ultrasound and sestamibi |journal=ANZ J Surg |volume=77 |issue=9 |pages=774–7 |year=2007 |pmid=17685957 |doi=10.1111/j.1445-2197.2007.04227.x |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid20625763">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gómez-Ramírez J, Sancho-Insenser JJ, Pereira JA, Jimeno J, Munné A, Sitges-Serra A |title=Impact of thyroid nodular disease on 99mTc-sestamibi scintigraphy in patients with primary hyperparathyroidism |journal=Langenbecks Arch Surg |volume=395 |issue=7 |pages=929–33 |year=2010 |pmid=20625763 |doi=10.1007/s00423-010-0680-8 |url=}}</ref>
*The sensitivity of sestamibi scintigraphy is 80% - 90%.<ref name="pmid8678959">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chapuis Y, Fulla Y, Bonnichon P, Tarla E, Abboud B, Pitre J, Richard B |title=Values of ultrasonography, sestamibi scintigraphy, and intraoperative measurement of 1-84 PTH for unilateral neck exploration of primary hyperparathyroidism |journal=World J Surg |volume=20 |issue=7 |pages=835–9; discussion 839–40 |year=1996 |pmid=8678959 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid17685957">{{cite journal |vauthors=Prasannan S, Davies G, Bochner M, Kollias J, Malycha P |title=Minimally invasive parathyroidectomy using surgeon-performed ultrasound and sestamibi |journal=ANZ J Surg |volume=77 |issue=9 |pages=774–7 |year=2007 |pmid=17685957 |doi=10.1111/j.1445-2197.2007.04227.x |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid20625763">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gómez-Ramírez J, Sancho-Insenser JJ, Pereira JA, Jimeno J, Munné A, Sitges-Serra A |title=Impact of thyroid nodular disease on 99mTc-sestamibi scintigraphy in patients with primary hyperparathyroidism |journal=Langenbecks Arch Surg |volume=395 |issue=7 |pages=929–33 |year=2010 |pmid=20625763 |doi=10.1007/s00423-010-0680-8 |url=}}</ref>
 
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[[image:Parathyroid subtraction.jpg|center|thumb|500px|Dual tracer Tc-99m sestamibi scintigraphy - A nuclear medicine parathyroid scan demonstrates a parathyroid adenoma adjacent to the left inferior pole of the thyroid gland. The above study was performed with Technetium-Sestamibi (1st column) and Iodine-123 (2nd column) simultaneous imaging and the subtraction technique (3rd column). -- [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AParathyroid_subtraction.jpg Source:Myohan at en.wikipedia, via Wikimedia Commons]]]
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[[image:Parathyroid subtraction.jpg|center|thumb|450px|Dual tracer Tc-99m sestamibi scintigraphy - A nuclear medicine parathyroid scan demonstrates a parathyroid adenoma adjacent to the left inferior pole of the thyroid gland. The above study was performed with Technetium-Sestamibi (1st column) and Iodine-123 (2nd column) simultaneous imaging and the subtraction technique (3rd column). -- [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File%3AParathyroid_subtraction.jpg Source:Myohan at en.wikipedia, via Wikimedia Commons]]]
|
[[image:Sestamibi scan gif.gif|center|thumb|600px|Tc-99m sestamibi scan - Parathyroid adenomas typically retain activity on late scans after wash-out in the thyroid has occurred. - [https://radiopaedia.org/cases/16675 Source:Case courtesy of Dr Roberto Schubert, Radiopaedia.org, rID: 16675]]]


=SPECT=
=SPECT=

Revision as of 21:35, 6 September 2017

Hyperparathyroidism Microchapters

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Anmol Pitliya, M.B.B.S. M.D.[2]

Classification

Classification of hyperparathyridism
Features Primary hyperparathyroidism Secondary hyperparathyroidism Tertiary hyperparathyroidism
Pathology Hyperfunction of parathyroid cells due to hyperplasia, adenoma or carcinoma. Physiological stimulation of parathyroid in response to hypocalcaemia. Following long term physiological stimulation leading to hyperplasia.
Cause
Associations May be associated with multiple endocrine neoplasia. Usually due to chronic renal failure or other causes of Vitamin D deficiency. Seen in chronic renal failure.
Serum calcium High Low/Normal High
Serum phosphate Low/Normal High High
Management Usually surgery if symptomatic. Cincacalcet can be considered in those not fit for surgery. Treatment of underlying cause. Usually cinacalcet or surgery in those that don't respond.

Causes

Genetic causes

  • HRPT2 gene mutations:[1]
    • HRPT2 gene code for parafibromin protein.
    • HRPT2 gene mutations are found in a type of familial hyperparathyroidism, hyperparathyroidism-jaw tumor (HPT-JT) syndrome.
    • HRTP2 gene mutations increases risk of parathyroid carcinoma.
  • Cyclin D1 gene (CCND1)/PRAD1 gene:[2][3]
    • PRAD1 (parathyroid adenoma 1) is a protooncogene located on chromosome 11q13.
    • Cyclin D1 gene translocation and oncogene action observerd in 8% of adenomas
    • Cyclin D1 gene overexpression is pbserved in 20% to 40% of parathyroid adenomas
  • MEN1 gene:[2][4]
    • MEN1 is a tumor supressor gene on chronosome 11q13.
    • Somatic loss of single MEN1 allele is observed in 25% to 40% of sporadic parathyroid adenomas.

Pathogenesis

Associated conditions

  • Hypercalcemia
  • Chronic renal failure
  • Osteitis fibrous cystica
  • Osteoporosis
  • Osteomalacia
  • Osteoarthritis
  • Brown tumor
  • Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1, type 2A, and type 4
  • Familial isolated hyperparathyroidism
  • Neonatal severe hyperparathyroidism
  • Familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia
  • Hyperparathyroid-jaw tumor syndrome
  • Pancreatitis[5]

Natural history, Prognosis and Complications

Natural history

  • Primary hyperparathyroidism usually develops in the fifth decade of life, in post-menopausal women and starts as asymptomatic hypercalcemia in presence of increased parathyroid hormone.
  • If left untreated, some of patients with primary hyperparathyroidism may commonly develop marked hypercalcemia, marked hypercalciuria, cortical bone demineralization and nephrolithiasis.[6][7]
  • Secondary hyperparathyroidism arise in the early course of chronic renal failure. As renal failure progress, secondary hyperparathyroidism becomes more notable.[8]
  • Secondary hyperparathyroidism leads to vascular calcification due to elevated calcium and phosphorus levels. This is strongly associated with increase in morbidity and mortality.[9]
  • If left untreated, secondary hyperparathyroidism carries an increased risk of vascular calcification with increasing age and duration of dialysis in patients.
  • Tertiary hyperparathyroidism usually develops in post renal transplant patients.[10]
  • If left untreated, tertiary hyperparathyroidism in post renal transplant patients may carry the risk of amyloid deposition, calciphylaxis, destructive or erosive spondyloarthropathy, osteonecrosis, and musculoskeletal infections.

Complications

Primary hyperparathyroidism

Majority of complications of primary hyperparathyroidism are due to hypercalcemia. Common complications of primary hyperparathyroidism include:

  • Bone related complication:[11][12]
    • Brown tumor
    • Osteitis fibrous cystica
    • Osteoporosis
  • Cardiac complications:[13]
    • Aortic and mitral valve calcification
    • Calcific deposits in the myocardium
    • Left ventricular hypertrophy
  • Endocrine complications:[5]
    • Pancreatitis
  • Gastrointestinal complications:[14]
    • Peptic ulcer disease
  • Metabolic complications:[15][16][14][17]
    • Hypercalcemic crisis
    • Osteomalacia
  • Neuromuscular complications:
    • Neuropathic muscle disease
  • Pregnancy related complications:[18]
    • Neonatal hypoparathyroidism
  • Psychiatric complications:[19][20][21]
    • Anxiety
    • Cognitive dysfunction including verbal memory and nonverbal abstraction
    • Depression
    • Irritability
    • Lack of concentration
    • Sleep disturbances
  • Renal complications:[6][22][23]
    • Hypercalciuria
    • Nephrolithiasis
    • Nephrocalcinosis
    • Renal insufficiency (impairement of GFR)
  • Rheumatologic complications:[24][25][26]
    • Gout
    • Osteoarthritis
    • Pseudogout

Secondary hyperparathyroidism

Complications of secondary hyperparathyroidism includes:

  • Cardiovascular complications:[27]
    • Impaired left ventricular diastolic function
    • Left ventricular hypertrophy
  • Hematologic complication:[28]
    • Platlet function inhibition
  • Metabolic complicattions:[29][30]
    • Metabolic syndrome
  • Musculoskeletal complications:[31][32][33]
    • Renal Osteodystrophy
      • Brown cysts
      • Osteitis fibrosa cystica
      • Osteoporosis
      • Osteosclerosis
  • Neurologic complications:[34][35]
    • Electroencephalogram abnormalities
    • Uremic neuropathy
  • Neuromuscular complications:[36]
    • Neuropathic muscle disease
  • System non-specific complications:[37]
    • Metastatic calcifications

Tertiary hyperparathyroidism

Complications of tertiary hyperparathyroidism post renal transplantation includes:[10]

  • Metabolic complications:[38]
    • Calciphylaxis
  • Musculoskeletal complications:
    • Musculoskeletal infections
    • Osteonecrosis
  • Neuromuscular complications:[39]
    • Neuropathic muscle disease
  • Renal complications:[40]
    • Nephrolithiasis
  • Rheumatologic complications:[41]
    • Destructive or erosive spondyloarthropathy
  • System non-specific complications:
    • Amyloid deposition
    • Metastatic calcifications

Prognosis

  • Prognosis of primary hyperparathyroidism is generally excellent after parathyroidectomy.
  • The complications of primary hyperparathyroidism resolves after the treatment.
  • Untreated complication of primary hyperparathyroidism may be fatal.[14]
  • Effective treatment can reduce morbidity and mortality associated with uncontrolled secondary hyperparathyroidism.[9]
  • Hyperphosphatemia and metastatic calcification results due elevated product of serum calcium and serum phosphorus. Both conditions are present in patients with secondary hyperparathyroidism in presence of end stage renal disease. This leads to a significant increase in morbidity and mortality. Aggressive control of hyperphosphatemia may improve prognosis[37].
  • Prognosis of tertiary hyperparathyroidism is generally good after resection of abnormal hyperplastic gland.[42]


ECG

There are no CT scan findings associated with hyperparathyroidism. However, a CT scan may be helpful in the diagnosis of cardiac complications of hyperparathyroidism. Findings on ECG are due to hypercalcemia and includes:[43]

  • ST segment - ST segment is short in patients with hyperparathyroidism when compared to normocalcemic patients. This represents a decrease in systolic interval.
  • QRS complex - QRS complex has an increased amplitudein patients with hyperparathyroidism when compared to normocalcemic patients. This represents an increase in ventricular muscle mass.
  • T wave - T wave is prolonged in patients with hyperparathyroidism when compared to normocalcemic patients.

X-ray

CT scan

MRI

Ultrasound

TC-99m Sestamibi Scintigraphy

  • Technetium-99m-methoxyisobutylisonitrile (99mTc-sestamibi or MIBI) scintigraphy is the most popular investigation for preoperative localization of hyper-functioning parathyroid glands.[44]
  • Most of the sestamibi is retained in mitochondria of thyroid and abnormal parathyroid tissue and is a function of mitochondrial activity.[45]
  • The basis of this "single-isotope, double-phase technique" is that sestamibi washes out of the thyroid more rapidly than from abnormal parathyroid tissue.[46]
  • Multiple planar images are obtained, typically one shortly after injection of 99mTc-sestamibi and another after two hours to identify the foci of retained sestamibi showing hyper-functioning parathyroid tissue.
  • As all parathyroid lesions does not retain sestamibi nor all thyroid tissue washes out quickly, subtraction imaging may be beneficial.[47]
  • Subtraction technique uses dual contrast Tc-99m sestamibi along with iodine-123 or 99m-technicium pertechnetate which is taken by thyroid tissue only. Iodine-123/99m-technicium pertechnetate images of thyroid are later digitally subtracted from Tc-99m sestamibi images leading to visualization of parathyroid tissue only.[48]
  • Presence of solid thyroid nodule is the most common cause of false positive results. Other causes of false positive results may include thyroid carcinoma, lymphoma, and lymphadenopathy.
  • The sensitivity of sestamibi scintigraphy can be increased by using it concomitantly with neck ultrasound and/or SPECT. [49][50]
  • The sensitivity of sestamibi scintigraphy is 80% - 90%.[51][52][53]
Dual tracer Tc-99m sestamibi scintigraphy - A nuclear medicine parathyroid scan demonstrates a parathyroid adenoma adjacent to the left inferior pole of the thyroid gland. The above study was performed with Technetium-Sestamibi (1st column) and Iodine-123 (2nd column) simultaneous imaging and the subtraction technique (3rd column). -- Source:Myohan at en.wikipedia, via Wikimedia Commons
Tc-99m sestamibi scan - Parathyroid adenomas typically retain activity on late scans after wash-out in the thyroid has occurred. - Source:Case courtesy of Dr Roberto Schubert, Radiopaedia.org, rID: 16675

SPECT

  • Single positron emission computed tomography may be used along with Tc-99m sestamibi scintigraphy for preoperative evaluation of hyper-functioning parathyroid gland.[54][55]
  • Sestamibi-SPECT is also called pinhone-SPECT (P-SPECT). P-SPECT uses cone beam collimator in contrast to parallel-hole collimator used in SPECT. cone bean collimator possess more suitable geometric properties leading to high spatial resolution.[56][57]
  • Using SPECT with sestamibi scintigraphy improves detection and localization of hyper-functioning parathyroid gland.[58][59]
  • SPECT provides more precise result of sestamibi scitigraphy allowing surgeon to choose best route for surgical intervention.
  • P-SPECT may detect glands not visible on planer images leading to increased sensitivity. It is very useful in case of uncertain result from conventional sestamibi scitigraphy.[60][61]
  • P-SPECT also enables accurate interpretation sestamibi uptake in upper mediastinum leading to a higher specificity.
  • In difficult cases, P-SPECT may also be adjuncted with subtraction Tc-99m sestamibi and I-123 scintigraphy or positron emission tomography.[62]
  • P-SPECT is approximately 84% sensitive, 91% specific with positive predictive value of around 91% and negative predictive value of around 84%.[63]
  • Fusion images of CT-MIBI-SPECT is superior to CT or MIBI-SPECT alone in preoperative localization of hyper-functioning parathyroid gland.[64]

PET

  • 11C-methionine PET along with CT scan (MET-PET/CT) may be used for preoperative localization of hyper-functioning gland.[65][66]
  • MET-PET/CT may be used as an complimentary imaging modality for localizing hyper-functioning parathyroid glands in patients with negative Tc-99m sestamibi scintigraphy/SPECT results.[67]

DXA

  • Low bone mineral density (BMD) is caused by primary hyperparathyroidism. Distal forearm is affected most commonly.
  • DXA of distal forearm should be done in all patients of primary hyperparathyroidism. Worst T-score of distal forearm is observed in patients with primary hyperparathyroidism.[68]

Other diagnostic studies

Intraoperative parathyroid hormone (IOPTH)

  • Measurement of intraoperative parathyroid hormone (IOPTH) by using a modified sensitive assay (immunoradiometric assay) is beneficial for long term surgical outcomes.Post-surgical success is defined as postoperative normocalcemia.
  • Patients with hyperparathyroidism due to lesion in a single gland shows a rapid decline of intact parathyroid hormone. The levels of intact parathyroid hormone reached to indetectable levels within hours of resection.[69]
  • After resection of parathyroid adenoma, intact parathyroid hormone levels decrease by 85% is observed in first 15 minutes. This fall in parathyroid hormone levels is due to short half-life of parathyroid hormone.[70]
  • The fall in parathyroid hormone level is significantly more after resection of parathyroid adenoma than after resection of parathyroid hyperplasia.
  • A fall in level of parathyroid hormone 15 minutes after resection of hyper-functioning parathyroid glands may help differentiating sigle gland disease from multi gland disease.[71][72]
  • IOPTH monitoring has a predictive accuracy of 97%. [73]

Technique for intraoperative parathyroid hormone (IOPTH) monitoring

  • When the enlarged parathyroid gland is first visualized intraoperatively, the baseline sample should be obtained.[74]
  • The baseline samples should never be obtained before induction of anesthesia. It is due to the fact that an increase in parathyroid hormone level may be observed after general anesthesia.
  • After excision of enlarged gland, 2nd and 3rd samples are collected at 5 and 10 minutes respectively.
  • Several criteria are used for predicting post-operative normocalcemia including:
    • A decline in parathyroid hormone levels of ≥60% from baseline value at 15 minutes.
    • A decline in parathyroid hormone levels of ≥50% from baseline value at 10 minutes.

Super Selective Venous Sampling

Selective arteriography

  • Selective transarterial hypocalcemic stimulation is combined with nonselective venous sampling to perform selective arteriography.[75]
  • Sodium citrate is injected to induce hypocalcemia. Simultaneous arteriography is performed.
  • Samples are taken for superior vena cava at basaeline and timed intervals (20 sec, 40 sec, and 60 sec).
  • An increase in the parathyroid hormone level to 1.4 times above the baseline or a clear blush observed on arteriography is considered as positive localization.
  • Arterial stimulation venous sampling is performed simultaneously with arteriogram due to similarly high PPV.

Angiography

  • Superselective arterial digital subtraction angiography (DSA) and superselective conventional angiography (CA) may be used for preoperative localization of hyper-functioning parathyroid glands in which noninvasive imaging modalities are negative or inconclusive.[76]
  • Sensitivity of superselective digital subtraction angiography appears to be similar to conventional angiography.
  • Superselective arterial digital subtraction angiography may be more sensitive than conventional angiography for preoperative localization of mediastinal hyper-functioning parathyroid glands.

References
  1. ↑ Shattuck TM, Välimäki S, Obara T, Gaz RD, Clark OH, Shoback D; et al. (2003). "Somatic and germ-line mutations of the HRPT2 gene in sporadic parathyroid carcinoma". N Engl J Med. 349 (18): 1722–9. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa031237. PMID 14585940.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Westin G, Björklund P, Akerström G (2009). "Molecular genetics of parathyroid disease". World J Surg. 33 (11): 2224–33. doi:10.1007/s00268-009-0022-6. PMID 19373510.
  3. ↑ Hsi ED, Zukerberg LR, Yang WI, Arnold A (1996). "Cyclin D1/PRAD1 expression in parathyroid adenomas: an immunohistochemical study". J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 81 (5): 1736–9. doi:10.1210/jcem.81.5.8626826. PMID 8626826.
  4. ↑ Agarwal SK, Kester MB, Debelenko LV, Heppner C, Emmert-Buck MR, Skarulis MC; et al. (1997). "Germline mutations of the MEN1 gene in familial multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 and related states". Hum Mol Genet. 6 (7): 1169–75. PMID 9215689.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Bai HX, Giefer M, Patel M, Orabi AI, Husain SZ (2012). "The association of primary hyperparathyroidism with pancreatitis". J. Clin. Gastroenterol. 46 (8): 656–61. doi:10.1097/MCG.0b013e31825c446c. PMC 4428665. PMID 22874807.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Peacock M (2002). "Primary hyperparathyroidism and the kidney: biochemical and clinical spectrum". J. Bone Miner. Res. 17 Suppl 2: N87–94. PMID 12412783.
  7. ↑ Silverberg SJ, Shane E, de la Cruz L, Dempster DW, Feldman F, Seldin D, Jacobs TP, Siris ES, Cafferty M, Parisien MV (1989). "Skeletal disease in primary hyperparathyroidism". J. Bone Miner. Res. 4 (3): 283–91. doi:10.1002/jbmr.5650040302. PMID 2763869.
  8. ↑ Nikodimopoulou M, Liakos S (2011). "Secondary hyperparathyroidism and target organs in chronic kidney disease". Hippokratia. 15 (Suppl 1): 33–8. PMC 3139677. PMID 21897756.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 Cunningham J, Locatelli F, Rodriguez M (2011). "Secondary hyperparathyroidism: pathogenesis, disease progression, and therapeutic options". Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 6 (4): 913–21. doi:10.2215/CJN.06040710. PMID 21454719.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Jevtic V (2003). "Imaging of renal osteodystrophy". Eur J Radiol. 46 (2): 85–95. doi:10.1016/S0720-048X(03)00072-X. PMID 12714225.
  11. ↑ Bandeira F, Cusano NE, Silva BC, Cassibba S, Almeida CB, Machado VC, Bilezikian JP (2014). "Bone disease in primary hyperparathyroidism". Arq Bras Endocrinol Metabol. 58 (5): 553–61. PMC 4315357. PMID 25166047.
  12. ↑ Mazzuoli GF, D'Erasmo E, Pisani D (1998). "Primary hyperparathyroidism and osteoporosis". Aging (Milano). 10 (3): 225–31. PMID 9801732.
  13. ↑ Stefenelli T, Abela C, Frank H, Koller-Strametz J, Globits S, Bergler-Klein J, Niederle B (1997). "Cardiac abnormalities in patients with primary hyperparathyroidism: implications for follow-up". J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 82 (1): 106–12. doi:10.1210/jcem.82.1.3666. PMID 8989242.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Corlew DS, Bryda SL, Bradley EL, DiGirolamo M (1985). "Observations on the course of untreated primary hyperparathyroidism". Surgery. 98 (6): 1064–71. PMID 3878002.
  15. ↑ Fitzpatrick LA, Bilezikian JP (1987). "Acute primary hyperparathyroidism". Am. J. Med. 82 (2): 275–82. PMID 3812520.
  16. ↑ Ahmad S, Kuraganti G, Steenkamp D (2015). "Hypercalcemic crisis: a clinical review". Am. J. Med. 128 (3): 239–45. doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2014.09.030. PMID 25447624.
  17. ↑ Lips P (2001). "Vitamin D deficiency and secondary hyperparathyroidism in the elderly: consequences for bone loss and fractures and therapeutic implications". Endocr Rev. 22 (4): 477–501. doi:10.1210/edrv.22.4.0437. PMID 11493580.
  18. ↑ Poomthavorn P, Ongphiphadhanakul B, Mahachoklertwattana P (2008). "Transient neonatal hypoparathyroidism in two siblings unmasking maternal normocalcemic hyperparathyroidism". Eur. J. Pediatr. 167 (4): 431–4. doi:10.1007/s00431-007-0528-6. PMID 17569990.
  19. ↑ Walker MD, McMahon DJ, Inabnet WB, Lazar RM, Brown I, Vardy S, Cosman F, Silverberg SJ (2009). "Neuropsychological features in primary hyperparathyroidism: a prospective study". J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 94 (6): 1951–8. doi:10.1210/jc.2008-2574. PMC 2690425. PMID 19336505.
  20. ↑ Espiritu RP, Kearns AE, Vickers KS, Grant C, Ryu E, Wermers RA (2011). "Depression in primary hyperparathyroidism: prevalence and benefit of surgery". J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 96 (11): E1737–45. doi:10.1210/jc.2011-1486. PMID 21917870.
  21. ↑ McAllion SJ, Paterson CR (1989). "Psychiatric morbidity in primary hyperparathyroidism". Postgrad Med J. 65 (767): 628–31. PMC 2429194. PMID 2608590.
  22. ↑ Lila AR, Sarathi V, Jagtap V, Bandgar T, Menon PS, Shah NS (2012). "Renal manifestations of primary hyperparathyroidism". Indian J Endocrinol Metab. 16 (2): 258–62. doi:10.4103/2230-8210.93745. PMC 3313745. PMID 22470864.
  23. ↑ Tassone F, Gianotti L, Emmolo I, Ghio M, Borretta G (2009). "Glomerular filtration rate and parathyroid hormone secretion in primary hyperparathyroidism". J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 94 (11): 4458–61. doi:10.1210/jc.2009-0587. PMID 19808852.
  24. ↑ Michael JW, Schlüter-Brust KU, Eysel P (2010). "The epidemiology, etiology, diagnosis, and treatment of osteoarthritis of the knee". Dtsch Arztebl Int. 107 (9): 152–62. doi:10.3238/arztebl.2010.0152. PMC 2841860. PMID 20305774.
  25. ↑ Hochberg, Marc (2015). "204. Primary hyperparathyroidism: rheumatologic manifestations and bone disease". Rheumatology. Philadelphia, PA: Mosby/Elsevier. p. 1668. ISBN 9780323091381.
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