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| '''For patient information click [[{{PAGENAME}} (patient information)|here]]''' | | '''For patient information click [[{{PAGENAME}} (patient information)|here]]''' |
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| {{Infobox_Disease | | | {{Rheumatoid arthritis}} |
| Name = Rheumatoid arthritis |
| | {{CMG}}; {{AE}} [[User:Ayesha A. Khan|Ayesha A. Khan, MD]] , {{MKK}} |
| Image = |
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| Caption = |
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| DiseasesDB = 11506 |
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| ICD10 = {{ICD10|M|05||m|05}}-{{ICD10|M|06||m|05}} |
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| ICD9 = {{ICD9|714}} |
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| ICDO = |
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| OMIM = 180300 |
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| MedlinePlus = 000431 |
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| MeshID = D001172 |
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| }}
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| {{SI}}
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| {{CMG}} | |
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| '''Associate Editor-In-Chief:''' {{CZ}}
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| | {{SK}} [[Rheumatoid disease]] |
| ===Click here for [[The Heart in Rheumatoid Arthritis]]=== | | ===Click here for [[The Heart in Rheumatoid Arthritis]]=== |
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| ==[[Rheumatoid arthritis overview|Overview]]== | | ==[[Rheumatoid arthritis overview|Overview]]== |
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| ==History== | | ==[[Rheumatoid arthritis historical perspective|Historical Perspective]]== |
| To delineate the history of rheumatoid arthritis a researcher must rely on scanty and ambiguous data from old medical literature and buried skeletons. The current consensus is too speculative for the taste of some scholars. Nevertheless a tentative best guess has emerged.
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| The first known traces of arthritis date back at least as far as 4500 BC. A text dated 123 AD first describes [[symptom]]s very similar to rheumatoid arthritis. It was noted in skeletal remains of Native Americans found in Tennessee <ref>http://mcclungmuseum.utk.edu/research/renotes/rn-05txt.htm Tennessee Origins of Rheumatoid Arthritis </ref> In the Old World the disease is vanishingly rare before the 1600s.<ref>http://www.arc.org.uk/newsviews/arctdy/104/bones.htm
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| Bones of Contention </ref> and on this basis investigators believe it spread across the Atlantic during the Age of Exploration. In 1859 the disease acquired its current name.
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| A anomaly has been noticed from investigation of Precolumbian bones. The bones from the Tennessee site show no signs of tuberculosis even though it was prevalent at the time throughout the Americas.<ref name="pmid14528501">{{cite journal |author=Rothschild BM, Rothschild C, Helbling M |title=Unified theory of the origins of erosive arthritis: conditioning as a protective/directing mechanism? |journal=J. Rheumatol. |volume=30 |issue=10 |pages=2095–102 |year=2003 |pmid=14528501 |doi=}}</ref> Jim Mobley, at Pfizer, has discovered a historical pattern of epidemics of tuberculosis followed by a surge in the number of rheumatoid arthritis cases a few generations later. <ref>[http://media.www.michigandaily.com/media/storage/paper851/news/2005/02/01/News/Scientist.Finds.Surprising.Links.Between.Arthritis.And.Tuberculosis-1428389.shtml?sourcedomain=www.michigandaily.com&MIIHost=media.collegepublisher.com Scientist finds surprising links between arthritis and tuberculosis]</ref> Mobley attributes the spikes in arthritis to selective pressure caused by tuberculosis. A hypervigilant immune system is protective against tuberculosis at the cost of an increased risk of autoimmune disease.
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| The art of Peter Paul Rubens may depict the effects of rheumatoid arthritis, for it is presumed that he used his own hands as a model. In his later paintings, his rendered hands show increasing deformity consistent with the symptoms of the disease.<ref name="pmid7005475">{{cite journal |author=Appelboom T, de Boelpaepe C, Ehrlich GE, Famaey JP |title=Rubens and the question of antiquity of rheumatoid arthritis |journal=JAMA |volume=245 |issue=5 |pages=483–6 |year=1981 |pmid=7005475 |doi=}}</ref> <ref>http://japan.medscape.com/viewarticle/538251 Did RA travel from New World to Old? The Rubens connection</ref>
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| ==Epidemiology==
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| *The overall age- and sex-adjusted annual [[Rheumatoid arthritis]] incidence is 40.9/100,000 population.<ref name="pmid20191579">{{cite journal |author=Myasoedova E, Crowson CS, Kremers HM, Therneau TM, Gabriel SE |title=Is the incidence of rheumatoid arthritis rising?: results from Olmsted County, Minnesota, 1955-2007 |journal=[[Arthritis and Rheumatism]] |volume=62 |issue=6 |pages=1576–82 |year=2010 |month=June |pmid=20191579 |pmc=2929692 |doi=10.1002/art.27425 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/art.27425 |accessdate=2012-04-25}}</ref>.
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| *Onset is uncommon under the age of 15 and from then on the incidence rises with age until the age of 80.
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| *An estimate of 1.3 million adults had [[Rheumatoid arthritis]] in 2007, affecting women two to three times as often as men. The incidence as well as prevalence of RA in women appears to have increased over the last decade.<ref name="pmid18163481">{{cite journal |author=Helmick CG, Felson DT, Lawrence RC, ''et al.'' |title=Estimates of the prevalence of arthritis and other rheumatic conditions in the United States. Part I |journal=[[Arthritis and Rheumatism]] |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=15–25 |year=2008 |month=January |pmid=18163481 |doi=10.1002/art.23177 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/art.23177 |accessdate=2012-04-25}}</ref>
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| *The lifetime risk of RA in adults is 3.6 % for women and 1.7% for men.<ref name="pmid21360492">{{cite journal |author=Crowson CS, Matteson EL, Myasoedova E, ''et al.'' |title=The lifetime risk of adult-onset rheumatoid arthritis and other inflammatory autoimmune rheumatic diseases |journal=[[Arthritis and Rheumatism]] |volume=63 |issue=3 |pages=633–9 |year=2011 |month=March |pmid=21360492 |pmc=3078757 |doi=10.1002/art.30155 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/art.30155 |accessdate=2012-04-25}}</ref>
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| *'''Cigarette smoking''' is a strong risk factor for developing RA. The duration of smoking and not the number of packs of cigarettes smoked daily co-related strongly with increased risk of RA.<ref name="pmid10323446">{{cite journal |author=Karlson EW, Lee IM, Cook NR, Manson JE, Buring JE, Hennekens CH |title=A retrospective cohort study of cigarette smoking and risk of rheumatoid arthritis in female health professionals |journal=[[Arthritis and Rheumatism]] |volume=42 |issue=5 |pages=910–7 |year=1999 |month=May |pmid=10323446 |doi=10.1002/1529-0131(199905)42:5<910::AID-ANR9>3.0.CO;2-D |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/1529-0131(199905)42:5<910::AID-ANR9>3.0.CO;2-D |accessdate=2012-04-25}}</ref>
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| *Some Native American groups have higher prevalence rates (5-6%) and black persons from the Caribbean region have lower prevalence rates. First-degree relatives prevalence rate is 2-3% and disease genetic concordance in [[Twin#Identical twins|monozygotic twins]] is approximately 12-15% compared to 3.5% in [[Dizygotic twins]].<ref name="pmid3820198">{{cite journal |author=Aho K, Koskenvuo M, Tuominen J, Kaprio J |title=Occurrence of rheumatoid arthritis in a nationwide series of twins |journal=[[The Journal of Rheumatology]] |volume=13 |issue=5 |pages=899–902 |year=1986 |month=October |pmid=3820198 |doi= |url= |accessdate=2012-04-25}}</ref>
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| *It is strongly associated with the inherited tissue type [[Major histocompatibility complex]] (MHC) class II antigen [[Human leukocyte antigen|HLA]]-DR4 (most specifically DR0401 and 0404) — hence family history is an important risk factor.<ref name="pmid21125177">{{cite journal |author=Arias MV, Domingues EV, Lozano RB, Flores CV, Peralta MM, Salinas CZ |title=Study of class I and II HLA alleles in 30 ecuadorian patients with rheumatoid arthritis compared with alleles from healthy and affected subjects with other rheumatic diseases |journal=[[Revista Brasileira De Reumatologia]] |volume=50 |issue=4 |pages=423–33 |year=2010 |month=August |pmid=21125177 |doi= |url=http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0482-50042010000400007&lng=en&nrm=iso&tlng=en |accessdate=2012-04-25}}</ref>
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| ==Pathophysiology==
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| [[Image:Rheumatoid arthritis joint.gif|thumb|left|Joint abnormalities in rheumatoid arthritis]]
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| ===Causes===
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| The cause of RA is still unknown to this day. In considering possible causes, it is important to distinguish between the cause(s) that trigger the inflammatory process, and those that may permit it to persist and even progress from milder to more severe forms of inflammation. Thus, it has long been suspected that certain infections could be triggers for this disease. As in other autoimmune diseases, the "mistaken identity" theory suggests that an offending organism causes an immune response that leaves behind antibodies that are specific to that organism. The antibodies are not specific enough, though. They begin an immune attack against, in this case, the [[synovium]], because some molecule in the synovium "looks like" a molecule on the offending organism that created the initial immune reaction - this phenomenon is called [[molecular mimicry]]. Some infectious organisms mentioned in this context have been ''[[Mycoplasma]]'', ''Erysipelothrix'', [[Epstein-Barr virus]], [[parvovirus|parvovirus B19]] and [[rubella]], but these associations have never been supported in epidemiological studies. Nor has convincing evidence been presented for other types of triggers such as food allergies.
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| There is also no clear evidence that physical and emotional effects, stress and improper diet could be a trigger for the disease. The many negative findings suggest that either the trigger is different from patient to patient, or that the trigger might in fact be a chance event. <ref>Edwards JC, Cambridge G, Abrahams VM. Do self-perpetuating B lymphocytes drive human autoimmune disease? Immunology. 1999;97:188-96.</ref>
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| The factors that allow the inflammation, once initiated, to become permanent and chronic, are much more clearly understood. The genetic association with HLA-DR4 is believed to play a major role in this, as well as the newly discovered associations with the gene PTPN22 and with two additional genes <ref>Plenge RM, Seielstad M, Padyukov L et al. TRAF1-C5 as a risk locus for rheumatoid arthritis--a genomewide study. N Engl J Med. 2007;357:1199-209.</ref>, all involved in regulating immune responses. It has also become clear from recent studies that these genetic factors may interact with the most clearly defined environmental risk factor for rheumatoid arthritis, namely cigarette smoking <ref>Padyukov L, Silva C, Stolt P, Alfredsson L, Klareskog L. A gene-environment interaction between smoking and shared epitope genes in HLA-DR provides a high risk of seropositive rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis Rheum. 2004;50:3085-92.</ref> Other environmental factors also appear to modulate the risk of acquiring RA, and hormonal factors in the individual patients may explain some features of the disease, such as the higher occurrence in women, the not-infrequent onset after child-birth, and the (slight) modulation of disease risk by hormonal medications.
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| Autoimmune diseases require that the affected individual have a defect in the ability to distinguish foreign molecules from the body's own. There are markers on many cells that confer this self-identifying feature. However, some classes of markers allow for RA to happen. 90% of patients with RA have the cluster of markers known as the HLA-DR4/DR1 cluster, whereas only 40% of unaffected [[Scientific control|controls]] do. Thus, in theory, RA requires susceptibility to the disease through genetic endowment with specific markers '''and''' an infectious event that triggers an autoimmune response.
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| Once triggered, B lymphocytes produce immunoglobins, and rheumatoid factors of the IgG and IgM classes that are deposited in the tissue, this subsequently leads to the activation of the serum complement cascade and the recruitment of the phagocytic arm of the immune response, which further exacerbates the inflammation of the synovium, leading to edema, vasodilation and infiltration by activated T-cells (mainly CD4 in nodular aggregates and CD8 in diffuse infiltrates). Early and intermediate molecular mediators of inflammation include tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), [[interleukin]]s [[IL-1]], [[Interleukin 6|IL-6]], [[IL-8]] and [[IL-15]], [[transforming growth factor]] beta, [[fibroblast growth factor]] and [[platelet-derived growth factor]]. Synovial macrophages and dentritic cells further function as antigen presenting cells by expressing MHC class II molecules, leading to an established local immune reaction in the tissue. The disease progresses in concert with formation of granulation tissue at the edges of the synovial lining ([[pannus]]) with extensive angiogenesis and production of enzymes that cause tissue damage. Modern pharmacological treatments of RA target these mediators. Once the inflammatory reaction is established, the synovium thickens, the cartilage and the underlying bone begins to disintegrate and evidence of joint destruction accrues.
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| ==Signs and symptoms==
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| ===Synovitis===
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| ==== Rheumatoid arthritis: clinical features====
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| Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic, inflammatory, autoimmune disorder affecting the joints and sometimes other organs as well. It is by definition polyarticular; that is, it affects many joints. Most commonly, the small joints in the hands and feet are affected, but larger joints (shoulders, knees etc) can also be affected; the pattern of joint involvement can differ from patient to patient.<ref name="pmid17976416">{{cite journal |author=Majithia V, Geraci SA |title=Rheumatoid arthritis: diagnosis and management |journal=Am. J. Med. |volume=120 |issue=11 |pages=936–9 |year=2007 |pmid=17976416 |doi=10.1016/j.amjmed.2007.04.005}}</ref>
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| Rheumatoid arthritis affects women three times more often than men, and it can first develop at any age. The risk of first developing the disease (the disease [[incidence]]) appears to be greatest for women between 40 and 50 years of age, and for men somewhat later.<ref name="pmid17045630">{{cite journal |author=Alamanos Y, Voulgari PV, Drosos AA |title=Incidence and prevalence of rheumatoid arthritis, based on the 1987 American College of Rheumatology criteria: a systematic review |journal=Semin. Arthritis Rheum. |volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=182–8 |year=2006 |pmid=17045630 |doi=10.1016/j.semarthrit.2006.08.006}}</ref> RA is a chronic disease, and although a spontaneous remission may occur in a very small number of patients, the natural course is almost invariably one of persistent symptoms, waxing and waning in intensity, and a progressive deterioration of joint structures leading to deformations and disability.
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| The small joints of the cervical spine can also be involved.
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| Inflammation in the joints manifests itself as a soft, "doughy" swelling, pain, tenderness to palpation and movement, local warmth, and functional impairment. Morning stiffness is often a prominent feature and may last for more than an hour. These signs help distinguish rheumatoid and other inflammatory arthritides from non-inflammatory diseases of the joints such as [[osteoarthritis]] (sometimes referred to as the "wear-and-tear" of the joints).
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| In RA, the joints are usually affected in a fairly symmetrical fashion although the initial presentation may be asymmetrical.
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| ===Deformity===
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| As the pathology progresses the inflammatory activity leads to erosion and destruction of the joint surface, which impairs their range of movement and leads to deformity. The fingers are typically deviated towards the little finger (''[[ulnar deviation]]'') and can assume unnatural shapes. Classical deformities in rheumatoid arthritis are the [[Boutonniere deformity]] (Hyperflexion at the [[proximal interphalangeal joint]] with hyperextension at the [[distal interphalangeal joint]]), [[swan neck deformity]] (Hyperextension at the [[proximal interphalangeal joint]], hyperflexion at the [[distal interphalangeal joint]]). The thumb may develop a "Z-Thumb" deformity with fixed flexion and [[subluxation]] at the [[metacarpophalangeal joint]], and hyperextension at the IP joint.
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| [http://www.radswiki.net Images courtesy of RadsWiki]
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| <gallery>
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| Image:Rheumatoid-arthritis-001.jpg
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| Image:Rheumatoid-arthritis-002.jpg
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| Image:Rheumatoid-arthritis-003.jpg
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| Image:Rheumatoid-arthritis-004.jpg
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| Image:RA-distal-clavicle-erosion-001.jpg|Distal clavicle erosion
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| </gallery>
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| ===Extra-articular (elsewhere)===
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| Patients with RA usually exhibit signs of systemic inflammation, that is, the inflammatory process in the joint leaves its marks on other organs as well (and this may also help distinguish it from osteoarthritis). Examples are a general tiredness and lassitude, sometimes low-grade fever, and some abnormalities on blood tests such as an elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), and [[anemia]], which is often seen as a consequence of the disease itself ([[anaemia of chronic disease]]) although it may also be caused by [[gastrointestinal bleeding]] as a side effect of drugs used in treatment, especially [[NSAID]]s used for [[analgesia]]. Extra-articular manifestations (manifestations outside the musculoskeletal system) occur in about 15% of patients with rheumatoid arthritis.<ref name="pmid12860726">{{cite journal |author=Turesson C, O'Fallon WM, Crowson CS, Gabriel SE, Matteson EL |title=Extra-articular disease manifestations in rheumatoid arthritis: incidence trends and risk factors over 46 years |journal=Ann. Rheum. Dis. |volume=62 |issue=8 |pages=722–7 |year=2003 |pmid=12860726 |doi=}}</ref> Examples are [[Hepatosplenomegaly]] which may occur with concurrent [[leukopenia]] and is then referred to as [[Felty's syndrome]]), lymphocytic infiltration affecting the salivary and lacrimal glands ([[Sjögren's syndrome]]), [[Pericarditis]], [[pleurisy]], [[alveolitis]], [[scleritis]], and [[subcutaneous tissue|subcutaneous]] [[nodule (medicine)|nodule]]s.
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| ====Cutaneous manifestations====
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| # The '''rheumatoid nodule''' is the cutaneous (strictly speaking subcutaneous) feature most characteristic of rheumatoid arthritis. The initial pathologic process in nodule formation is unknown but is thought to be related to small-vessel inflammation. The mature lesion is defined by an area of central [[necrosis]] surrounded by palisading [[macrophages]] and [[fibroblasts]] and a cuff of cellular [[connective tissue]] and chronic inflammatory cells. The typical rheumatoid nodule may be a few millimetres to a few centimetres in diameter and is usually found over bony prominences, such as the [[olecranon]], the [[Calcaneus#Calcaneal_tuberosity|calcaneal tuberosity]], the [[metacarpophalangeal joint]]s, or other areas that sustain repeated mechanical stress. Nodules are associated with a positive RF titer and severe erosive arthritis. They can rarely occur throughout the body in internal organs.
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| # A variety of forms of '''[[vasculitis]]''' is also a cutaneous manifestation associated with rheumatoid arthritis. A benign form occurs as microinfarcts around the nailfolds. More severe forms include [[livedo reticularis]], which is a network (reticulum) of erythematous to purplish discoloration of the skin due to the presence of an obliterative cutaneous capillaropathy. (This rash is also otherwise associated with the antiphospholipid-antibody syndrome, a hypercoagulable state linked to antiphospholipid antibodies and characterized by recurrent vascular thrombosis and second trimester miscarriages.
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| Other, rather rare, cutaneous features include:
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| *[[pyoderma gangrenosum]], a necrotizing, ulcerative, noninfectious neutrophilic dermatosis.
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| *[[Sweet's syndrome]], a neutrophilic dermatosis usually associated with myeloproliferative disorders
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| *viral infections
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| *drug reactions (6)
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| *[[erythema nodosum]]
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| *lobular [[panniculitis]]
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| *[[atrophy]] of digital skin
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| *[[palmar erythema]]
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| *diffuse thinning (rice paper skin), and skin fragility.
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| ====Other====
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| In addition to articular and cutaneous features, rheumatoid arthritis has a multitude of other, rare, features:
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| ;Pulmonary: The [[lungs]] may become involved as a part of the primary disease process or as a consequence of therapy. [[Fibrosis]] may occur spontaneously or as a consequence of therapy (for example [[methotrexate]]). Caplan's nodules are found as are pulmonary effusions.
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| ;Renal: [[Amyloidosis]] can occur.
| | ==[[Rheumatoid arthritis classification|Classification]]== |
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| ;[[The Heart in Rheumatoid Arthritis|Cardiovascular]]: Possible complications that may arise include: [[pericarditis]], [[endocarditis]], left ventricular failure, valvulitis and [[fibrosis]]. The risk of cardiovascular, specifically [[myocardial infarction]] (heart attack) or [[congestive heart failure]] are greater in individuals with RA. Over 1/3 of deaths of people with RA are directly attributable to cardiovascular death.
| | ==[[Rheumatoid arthritis pathophysiology|Pathophysiology]]== |
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| ;Ocular: Keratoconjunctivitis sicca (dry eyes), [[scleritis]], episcleritis and scleromalacia.
| | ==[[Rheumatoid arthritis causes|Causes]]== |
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| ;Gastrointestinal: Felty syndrome, [[anemia]]
| | ==[[Rheumatoid arthritis differential diagnosis|Differentiating Rheumatoid arthritis from Other Diseases]]== |
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| ;Neurological: Peripheral neuropathy and [[mononeuritis multiplex]] may occur. The most common problem is carpal tunnel syndrome due to compression of the median nerve by swelling around the wrist. Atlanto-axial subluxation can occur, owing to erosion of the odontoid process and or/transverse ligaments in the cervical spine's connection to the skull. Such an erosion (>3mm) can give rise to vertebrae slipping over one another and compressing the spinal cord. At first the patient experiences clumsiness but without due care this can progress to [[quadriplegia]].
| | ==[[Rheumatoid arthritis epidemiology and demographics|Epidemiology and Demographics]]== |
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| ;Vasculitis: [[Vasculitis]] in rheumatoid arthritis is common. It is typically presents as vasculitic nailfold infarcts.
| | ==[[Rheumatoid arthritis risk factors|Risk Factors]]== |
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| ;Osteoporosis: [[Osteoporosis]] classically occurs in RA around inflamed joints. It is postulated to be partially caused by inflammatory cytokines.
| | ==[[Rheumatoid arthritis screening|Screening]]== |
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| ;Lymphoma: The incidence of [[lymphoma]] is increased in RA as it is in most autoimmune conditions.
| | ==[[Rheumatoid arthritis natural history, complications and prognosis|Natural History, Complications and Prognosis]]== |
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| ==Diagnosis== | | ==Diagnosis== |
| ===Diagnostic criteria===
| | [[Rheumatoid arthritis diagnostic study of choice |Diagnostic study of choice]] | [[Rheumatoid arthritis history and symptoms|History and Symptoms]] | [[Rheumatoid arthritis physical examination|Physical Examination]] | [[Rheumatoid arthritis laboratory tests|Laboratory Findings]] | [[Rheumatoid arthritis electrocardiogram|Electrocardiogram]] | [[Rheumatoid arthritis x ray|X ray]] | [[Rheumatoid arthritis echocardiography and ultrasound|Echocardiography and Ultrasound]] | [[Rheumatoid arthritis CT|CT]] | [[Rheumatoid arthritis MRI|MRI Findings]] | [[Rheumatoid arthritis other imaging findings|Other Imaging Findings]] | [[Rheumatoid arthritis other diagnostic studies|Other Diagnostic Studies]] |
| The American College of Rheumatology has defined (1987) the following criteria for the classification of rheumatoid arthritis:<!--
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| --><ref>{{cite journal | author = Arnett F, Edworthy S, Bloch D, McShane D, Fries J, Cooper N, Healey L, Kaplan S, Liang M, Luthra H | title = The American Rheumatism Association 1987 revised criteria for the classification of rheumatoid arthritis. | journal = Arthritis Rheum | volume = 31 | issue = 3 | pages = 315-24 | year = 1988 | id = PMID 3358796 | url=http://www.rheumatology.org/publications/classification/ra/ra.asp?aud=mem}}</ref>
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| * Morning stiffness of >1 hour most mornings for at least 6 weeks.
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| * Arthritis and soft-tissue swelling of >3 of 14 joints/[[joint]] groups, present for at least 6 weeks
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| * Arthritis of hand joints, present for at least 6 weeks
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| * Symmetric arthritis, present for at least 6 weeks
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| * Subcutaneous nodules in specific places
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| * [[Rheumatoid factor]] at a level above the 95th percentile
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| * Radiological changes suggestive of joint erosion
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| At least four criteria have to be met for classification as RA.
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| It is important to note that these criteria are not intended for the diagnosis of patients for routine clinical care. They were primarily intended to categorize patients for research. For example: one of the criteria is the presence of bone erosion on X-Ray. Prevention of bone erosion is one of the main aims of treatment because it is generally irreversible. To wait until all of the ACR criteria for rheumatoid arthritis are met may sometimes result in a worse outcome for the patient. Most patients and rheumatologists would agree that it would be better to treat the patient as early as possible and prevent bone erosion from occurring, even if this means treating patients who don't fulfill the ACR criteria. The ACR criteria are, however, very useful for categorising patients with established rheumatoid arthritis, for example for epidemiological purposes.
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| ===Blood tests===
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| When RA is being clinically suspected, [[immunology|immunological]] studies are required, such as [[rheumatoid factor]] (RF, a specific [[antibody]]).<ref>{{cite web | title=Rheumatoid Factor | url=http://www.labtestsonline.org/understanding/analytes/rheumatoid/test.html | work=Lab Tests Online | publisher=American Association for Clinical Chemistry | date=September 30, 2006 | accessdate=2006-10-28}}</ref>
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| A negative RF does not rule out RA; rather, the arthritis is called ''[[seronegative]]''. During the first year of illness, rheumatoid factor is frequently negative. 80% of patients eventually convert to seropositive status. RF is also seen in other illnesses, like [[Sjögren's syndrome]], and in approximately 10% of the healthy population, therefore the test is not very specific.
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| Because of this low [[Specificity (tests)|specificity]], a new serological test has been developed in recent years, which tests for the presence of so called anti-citrullinated protein antibodies (ACPA). Like RF, this test can detect approximately 80% of all RA patients, but is rarely positive in non-RA patients, giving it a specificity of around 98%. In addition, ACP antibodies can be often detected in early stages of the disease, or even before disease onset. Currently, the most common test for ACP antibodies is the anti-CCP (cyclic citrullinated peptide) test.<ref>{{cite web | title=CCP (Cyclic Citrullinated Peptide antibody) | url=http://www.labtestsonline.org/understanding/analytes/ccp/test.html | work=Lab Tests Online | publisher=American Association for Clinical Chemistry | date=January 15, 2005 | accessdate=2006-10-28}}</ref>
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| Also, several other [[blood test]]s are usually done to allow for other causes of arthritis, such as [[lupus erythematosus]]. The [[erythrocyte sedimentation rate]] (ESR), [[C-reactive protein]],<!--
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| --><ref>{{cite web | title=C-Reactive Protein | url=http://www.labtestsonline.org/understanding/analytes/crp/test.html| work=Lab Tests Online | publisher=American Association for Clinical Chemistry | date=September 3, 2004 | accessdate=2006-10-28}}</ref>
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| [[full blood count]], [[renal function]], [[liver enzyme]]s and other immunological tests (e.g. [[antinuclear antibody]]/ANA)<!-- | |
| --><ref>{{cite web | title=ANA (Antinuclear Antibody) | url=http://www.labtestsonline.org/understanding/analytes/ana/test.html | work=Lab Tests Online | publisher=American Association for Clinical Chemistry | date=December 13, 2004 | accessdate=2006-10-28}}</ref>
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| are all performed at this stage. [[Ferritin]] can reveal [[hemochromatosis]], which can mimic RA.
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| ==Treatment== | | ==Treatment== |
| | [[Rheumatoid arthritis medical therapy|Medical Therapy]] | [[Rheumatoid arthritis surgical therapy|Surgical Therapy]] | [[Rheumatoid arthritis Primary prevention|Primary prevention]] | [[Rheumatoid arthritis secondary prevention|Secondary prevention]] | [[Rheumatoid arthritis future or investigational therapies|Future or Investigational Therapies]] |
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| There is no known cure for rheumatoid arthritis. However, many different types of treatment can be used to alleviate symptoms and/or to modify the disease process.
| | ==Case Studies== |
| | :[[Rheumatoid arthritis case study 1|Case #1]] |
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| The goal of treatment in this chronic disease must be two-fold: to alleviate the suffering of the patient here and now, and to prevent the future destruction of the joints and resulting handicap if the disease is left unchecked. These two goals may not always coincide: while pain relievers may achieve the first goal, they do not have any impact on the long-term consequences. For these reasons, most authorities believe that RA should be treated, in the vast majority of patients, by at least one specific anti-rheumatic medication, also named DMARD (see below), to which other medications and non-medical interventions can be added as needed.
| | ==Related Chapters== |
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| [[Cortisone]] therapy has offered relief to many patients in the past, but its long-term effects have been deemed undesirable.<ref>[http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1520676 [[NIH]]: Results of Long-Continued Cortisone Administration in Rheumatoid Arthritis]</ref>. However, cortisone injections can be valuable adjuncts to a long-term treatment plan, and using low dosages of daily cortisone (e.g., prednisone or prednisolone, 5-7.5 mg daily) can also have an important benefit if added to a proper specific anti-rheumatic treatment.
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| [[Pharmacology|Pharmacological]] treatment of RA can be divided into [[disease-modifying antirheumatic drug]]s (DMARDs), [[anti-inflammatory]] agents and [[analgesic]]s.<ref>{{cite journal | author = O'Dell J | title = Therapeutic strategies for rheumatoid arthritis. | journal = N Engl J Med | volume = 350 | issue = 25 | pages = 2591-602 | year = 2004 | id = PMID 15201416}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Hasler P | title = Biological therapies directed against cells in autoimmune disease. | journal = Springer Semin Immunopathol | volume = 27 | issue = 4 | pages = 443-56 | year = 2006 | month=Jun | id = PMID 16738955}}</ref> DMARDs have been found to produce durable remissions and delay or halt disease progression. In particular they prevent bone and joint damage from occurring secondary to the uncontrolled inflammation. This is important as such damage is usually irreversible. Anti-inflammatories and analgesics improve pain and stiffness but do not prevent joint damage or slow the disease progression.
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| There is an increasing recognition amongst rheumatologists that permanent damage to the joints occurs at a very early stage in the disease. In the past the strategy used was to start with just an anti-inflammatory drug, and assess progression clinically and using X-rays. If there was evidence that joint damage was starting to occur then a more potent DMARD would be prescribed. Tools such as ultrasound and MRI are more sensitive methods of imaging the joints and have demonstrated that joint damage occurs much earlier and in more patients than was previously thought. Patients with normal X-rays will often have erosions detectable by ultrasound that X ray could not demonstrate.
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| There may be other reasons why starting DMARDs early is beneficial as well as prevention of structural joint damage. In the early stage of the disease, the joints are increasingly infiltrated by cells of the immune system that signal to one another and are thought to set up self-perpetuating chronic inflammation. Interrupting this process as early as possible with an effective DMARD (such as methotrexate) appears to improve the outcome from the RA for years afterwards. Delaying therapy for as little as a few months after the onset of symptoms can result in worse outcomes in the long term. There is therefore considerable interest in establishing the most effective therapy in patients with early arthritis, when they are most responsive to therapy and have the most to gain.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Vital E, Emery P | title = Advances in the treatment of early rheumatoid arthritis. | journal = Am Fam Physician | volume = 72 | issue = 6 | pages = 1002, 1004 | year = 2005 | month=Sep 15 | id = PMID 16190499 | url=http://www.aafp.org/afp/20050915/editorials.html}}</ref>
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| Treatment also includes rest and physical activity. Regular exercise is important for maintaining joint mobility and making the joint muscles stronger. Swimming is especially good, as it allows for exercise with a minimum of stress on the joints. Heat and cold applications are modalities that can ease symptoms before and after exercise. Pain in the joints is sometimes alleviated by oral [[acetaminophen]] (paracetamol). Other areas of the body, such as the eyes and lining of the heart, are treated individually. However, there is no diet that has been shown to alleviate rheumatoid arthritis, although fish oil may have anti-inflammatory effects.
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| ===Disease modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs)===
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| The term Disease Modifying Anti-Rheumatic Agent was originally introduced to indicate a drug that reduced evidence of processes thought to underly the disease, such as a raised erythrocyte sedimentation rate, reduced haemoglobin level, raised rheumatoid factor level and more recently, raised C-reactive protein level. More recently, the term has been used to indicate a drug that reduces the rate of damage to bone and cartilage. DMARDs can be further subdivided into traditional small molecular mass drugs synthesised chemically and newer 'biological' agents produced through genetic engineering.
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| Traditional small molecular mass drugs:
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| *[[azathioprine]]
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| *[[ciclosporin]] (cyclosporine A)
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| *[[D penicillamine]]
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| *[[gold salts]]
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| *[[hydroxychloroquine]]
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| *[[leflunomide]]
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| *[[methotrexate]] (MTX)
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| *[[minocycline]]
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| *[[sulfasalazine]] (SSZ)
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| The most important and most common adverse events relate to [[liver]] and [[bone marrow]] toxicity (MTX, SSZ, leflunomide, azathioprine, gold compounds, D-penicillamine), renal toxicity (cyclosporine A, parenteral gold salts, D-penicillamine), pneumonitis (MTX), allergic [[skin]] reactions (gold compounds, SSZ), autoimmunity (D-penicillamine, SSZ, minocycline) and infections (azathioprine, cyclosporine A). Hydroxychloroquine may cause ocular toxicity, although this is rare, and because hydroxychloroquine does not affect the bone marrow or liver it is often considered to be the DMARD with the least toxicity. Unfortunately hydroxychloroquine is not very potent, and for most patients hydroxychloroquine alone is insufficient to control symptoms.
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| Many rheumatologists consider methotrexate to be the most important and useful DMARD, largely because of lower rates of stopping the drug through toxicity. Nevertheless, methotrexate is often considered by patients and even other doctors as a very "toxic" drug. This reputation is not entirely justified, and at times can result in patients being denied the most effective treatment for their arthritis. Although methotrexate does indeed have the potential to suppress the bone marrow or cause hepatitis, these effects can be monitored using regular blood tests, and the drug withdrawn at an early stage if the tests are abnormal, before any serious harm is done (typically the blood tests return to normal after stopping the drug). In clinical trials in which patients with RA were treated with one of a range of different DMARDs, patients who were prescribed methotrexate were those who stayed on their medication the longest (the others stopped theirs because of either side-effects or failure of the drug to control the arthritis). Lastly, methotrexate is often preferred by rheumatologists because if it does not control arthritis on its own then it works well in combination with many other drugs, especially the biological agents. Other DMARDs may not be as effective or safe in combination with biological agents.
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| ====Biological agents====
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| Biological agents ([[biologics]] include:
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| *tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) blockers - [[etanercept]] (Enbrel), [[infliximab]] (Remicade), [[adalimumab]] (Humira)
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| *[[Interleukin 1]] blockers - [[anakinra]]
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| * [[monoclonal antibody|monoclonal antibodies]] against [[B cell]]s - [[rituximab]] (Rituxan)<ref>{{cite journal | author = Edwards J, Szczepanski L, Szechinski J, Filipowicz-Sosnowska A, Emery P, Close D, Stevens R, Shaw T | title = Efficacy of B-cell-targeted therapy with rituximab in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. | journal = N Engl J Med | volume = 350 | issue = 25 | pages = 2572-81 | year = 2004 | id = PMID 15201414}}</ref>
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| * T cell activation blocker [[abatacept]] (Orencia)
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| ===Anti-inflammatory agents and analgesics===
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| Anti-inflammatory agents include:
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| *[[glucocorticoids]]
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| *[[Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug]] (NSAIDs, most also act as analgesics)
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| Analgesics include:
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| *[[acetaminophen]] (Paracetamol outside US)
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| *[[opiates]]
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| *[[diproqualone]]
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| *[[lidocaine]] topical
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| The [[Prosorba column]] blood filtering device was approved by the FDA for treatment of RA in 1999 <ref> Fresenius HemoCare, Inc., "New Hope for Rheumatoid Arthritis Patients," press release, September 17, 1999.</ref> However, in most patients the results have been very modest.
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| Historic treatments for RA have also included: [[RICE]], [[acupuncture]], apple diet, [[nutmeg]], some light exercise every now and then, [[nettle]]s, [[bee]] venom, [[copper]] bracelets, [[rhubarb]] diet, rest, extractions of teeth, [[fasting]], honey, [[vitamin]]s, [[insulin]], magnets, and [[electroconvulsive therapy]] (ECT).<ref>[http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?artid=1639217&blobtype=pdf [[NIH]]: History of the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis]</ref>. Most of these have either had no effect at all, or their effects have been modest and transient in some individual patients, while not being generalizable.
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| ==Research==
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| ===Pain relief===
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| Recent research indicates that [[cytokines]], a group of chemicals that are produced by various cells in the body, may be responsible for generating the response of chronic [[Pain and nociception|pain]] associated with Rheumatoid Arthritis. Medications that affect the release of cytokines or block the action of cytokines may reduce the response of chronic pain. Various anti-cytokine medications are now being used to treat painful disease states such as Rheumatoid Arthritis, and [[Crohn's Disease]]. In addition, research using the anti-cytokine medication, [[Thalidomide]], is being evaluated for its effect in treating chronic pain associated with [[Arachnoiditis]]. Food (vegetables) with higher water content should be avoided.
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| ===Specific desensitization===
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| An experimental treatment known as [[enzyme potentiated desensitization]] (EPD) is now under development for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis and other [[autoimmune diseases]]. EPD uses dilutions of allergen (in this case type 2 [[collagen]]) and an enzyme, β-glucuronidase, to which T-regulatory lymphocytes respond by favouring desensitization, rather than sensitization. Initial results are encouraging <ref>[http://www.epidyme.com/ra.html EPD treatment of rheumatoid arthritis proof of concept results on Epidyme website] use of EPD to treat autoimmune diseases.</ref> but the treatment is still at an early stage of development.
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| ===Other therapies===
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| Other therapies are [[weight loss]], [[occupational therapy]], [[podiatry]], [[physiotherapy]], [[joint injection]]s, and special tools to improve hard movements (e.g. special tin-openers).
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| Severely affected joints may require [[joint replacement]] surgery, such as knee replacement.
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| ==Prognosis==
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| The course of the disease varies greatly from patient to patient. Some patients have mild short-term symptoms, but in most the disease is progressive for life. Around 20%-30% will have subcutaneous nodules (known as rheumatoid nodules); this is associated with a poor prognosis.
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| ===Disability===
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| *Daily living activities are impaired in most patients.
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| *After 5 years of disease, approximately 33% of patients will not be working
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| *After 10 years, approximately half will have substantial functional disability.
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| ===Prognostic factors===
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| *Poor prognostic factors include persistent synovitis, early erosive disease, extra-articular findings (including subcutaneous rheumatoid nodules), positive serum RF findings, positive serum anti-CCP autoantibodies, carriership of HLA-DR4 "Shared Epitope" alleles, family history of RA, poor functional status, socioeconomic factors, elevated acute phase response (erythrocyte sedimentation rate [ESR], C-reactive protein [CRP]), and increased clinical severity.
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| ===Mortality===
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| Estimates of the life-shortening effect of RA vary; most sources cite a lifespan reduction of 5 to 10 years; the [[National Institutes of Health]] has estimated a lifespan reduction of 10 to 20 years.<ref>[www.nih.gov/about/researchresultsforthepublic/arthritis.pdf Rheumatoid arthritis prognosis]</ref> According to the UK's National Rheumatoid Arthritis Society, "Young age at onset, long disease duration, the concurrent presence of other health problems (called co-morbidity), and characteristics of severe RA – such as poor functional ability or overall health status, a lot of joint damage on x-rays, the need for hospitalisation or involvement of organs other than the joints – have been shown to associate with higher mortality". <ref>[http://www.rheumatoid.org.uk/article.php?article_id=112 Excess mortality in rheumatoid arthritis]</ref> Positive responses to treatment may indicate a better prognosis. A 2005 study by the [[Mayo Clinic]] noted that RA patients suffer a doubled risk of heart disease,<ref>[http://www.mayoclinic.org/news2005-rst/2654.html The second largest contributor of mortality is cerebrovascular disease. Increased risk of heart disease in rheumatoid arthritis patients]</ref> independent of other risk factors such as [[diabetes]], alcohol abuse, and elevated [[cholesterol]], blood pressure and [[body mass index]]. The mechanism by which RA causes this increased risk remains unknown; the presence of chronic inflammation has been proposed as a contributing factor. <ref>[http://www.hopkins-arthritis.org/news-archive/2002/cardiac.html Cardiac disease in rheumatoid arthritis]</ref>
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| ==Histopathological Examples==
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| ===Case No 1===
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| ====Clinical Summary====
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| A 57-year-old white female had suffered from rheumatoid arthritis for 20 years. During this period, many joints were involved, some seriously. Because of the severe pain of this arthritis the patient was placed on steroids and was given analgesics, some of which contained [[acetaminophen]]. The patient also took additional analgesics ([[aspirin]] and/or [[acetaminophen]]) to help control the pain. The patient was admitted to the emergency room for [[weakness]] and [[hematemesis]]. On admission the patient's [[hematocrit]] was 21%. Endoscopy demonstrated a large bleeding ulcer and fresh blood in the stomach and proximal duodenum. The sites of bleeding were cauterized; however, shortly after the procedure the patient became hypotensive and died despite aggressive resuscitation.
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| ====Autopsy Findings====
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| There were numerous erosions and ulcers in the gastrointestinal tract and a large quantity of fresh blood in the gastrointestinal tract. There was also significant swelling and deformation in multiple joints. On the medial aspect of the right foot there was a firm, irregular, rubbery subcutaneous nodule measuring 2 x 1.5 cm. The cut surface was whitish-yellow and fibrous.
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| ====Histopathological Findings====
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| [http://www.peir.net Images courtesy of Professor Peter Anderson DVM PhD and published with permission © PEIR, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Department of Pathology]
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| [[Image:RA 001.jpg|left|thumb|400px|This is a gross photograph of the patient's hands at autopsy. Note the swollen joints and the deforming arthritis.]]
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| <br clear="left"/>
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| [[Image:RA 002.jpg|left|thumb|400px|This is a medium-power photomicrograph of the joint capsule surrounding the metacarpal joints. Note the thickening of the capsule and the focal accumulation of inflammatory cells surrounding a central area of fibrinoid necrosis (arrow). ]]
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| <br clear="left"/>
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| [[Image:RA 003.jpg|left|thumb|400px|This is a high-power photomicrograph of the joint capsule with another granuloma surrounding a central area of fibrinoid necrosis (arrow). ]]
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| <br clear="left"/>
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| [[Image:RA 004.jpg|left|thumb|400px|This is a gross photograph of the foot from this same patient. Note the subcutaneous nodule on the medial aspect of the foot (arrow).]]
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| <br clear="left"/>
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| [[Image:RA 005.jpg|left|thumb|400px|This is a low-power photomicrograph of the subcutaneous nodule from this patient.]]
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| <br clear="left"/>
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| [[Image:RA 006.jpg|left|thumb|400px|This higher-power photomicrograph of the subcutaneous nodule shows a granulomatous lesion with a necrotic center and a peripheral rim of macrophages, fibrocytes, and occasional lymphocytes. In the necrotic center of the granuloma there is some mineralization (basophilic material). ]]
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| <br clear="left"/>
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| [[Image:RA 007.jpg|left|thumb|400px|This higher-power photomicrograph of the subcutaneous nodule again demonstrates the necrotic center and peripheral rim of macrophages, fibrocytes, and occasional lymphocytes. There are focal accumulations of hyaline material (fibrinoid material) within the granuloma. ]]
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| <br clear="left"/>
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| [[Image:RA 008.jpg|left|thumb|400px|This higher-power photomicrograph of the tissue illustrates the palisading nuclei of the monocytes which are located around the periphery of the central necrotic region (1). ]]
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| <br clear="left"/>
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| [[Image:RA 0010.jpg|left|thumb|400px|This is a high-power photomicrograph of the mononuclear cells which surround the central area of necrosis. The focal accumulations of fibrinoid material are clearly visible. Lymphocytes are present in the right side of this image. ]]
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| <br clear="left"/>
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| [[Image:RA 009.jpg|left|thumb|400px|This is a high-power photomicrograph of another region with macrophages (right), fibrocytes (left), and occasional lymphocytes throughout the lesion. ]]
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| <br clear="left"/>
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| ==References==
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| {{reflist|2}}
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| ==See also==
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| * [[Arthritis]] | | * [[Arthritis]] |
| * [[Juvenile idiopathic arthritis]] | | * [[Juvenile idiopathic arthritis]] |
|
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|
| ==External links==
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| * {{cite web | title=Rheumatoid Arthritis | url=http://www.arthritis.org/conditions/DiseaseCenter/RA/default.asp | publisher=Arthritis Foundation}}
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| *[http://logikbase.com/website/techprofile.cfm?licid=596 Use of Jellyfish Collagen (Type II) in the Treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis]
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| * {{cite web | title=Rheumatoid Arthritis | url=http://www.arc.org.uk/arthinfo/patpubs/6033/6033.asp | publisher=Arthritis Research Campaign}}
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| * {{cite web | author=Charles Weber | title=History of rheumatoid arthritis | url= http://charles_w.tripod.com/arthritis2.html}}
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| * {{cite web | title=Living with Rheumatoid Arthritis | url=http://mediapedia.wikidot.com/living-with-rheumatoid-arthritis | publisher=NLM | accessdate=2007-04-01}} video
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| *[http://www.arthritis.ca/programs%20and%20resources/news%20magazine/1989/vector/default.asp?s=1 The Vector Theory]
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| *[http://www.biomedcode.com BioMedCode Animal Models for Rheumatoid Arthritis (TNF<sup>ΔARE</sup>)]
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| *[http://www.mugen-noe.org MUGEN NoE aims to structure and shape a world-class scientific and technological excellence in the field of “murine models for immunological disease”]
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|
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| {{SIB}}
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| {{Diseases of the musculoskeletal system and connective tissue}} | | {{Diseases of the musculoskeletal system and connective tissue}} |
| | {{WH}} |
| | {{WS}} |
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| [[Category:Aging-associated diseases]] | | [[Category:Aging-associated diseases]] |
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| [[Category:Autoimmune diseases]] | | [[Category:Autoimmune diseases]] |
| [[Category:Diseases involving the fasciae]] | | [[Category:Diseases involving the fasciae]] |
| [[Category:Rheumatology & Autoimmune Disease]]
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| [[Category:Rheumatology]] | | [[Category:Rheumatology]] |
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| [[cs:Revmatoidní artritida]]
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| [[de:Rheumatoide Arthritis]]
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| [[es:Artritis reumatoide]]
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| [[fr:Polyarthrite rhumatoïde]]
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| [[it:Artrite reumatoide]]
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| [[he:דלקת מפרקים שיגרונית]]
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| [[nl:Reumatoïde artritis]]
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| [[ja:関節リウマチ]]
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| [[pl:Reumatoidalne zapalenie stawów]]
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| [[pt:Artrite reumatóide]]
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| [[ru:Ревматоидный артрит]]
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| [[fi:Nivelreuma]]
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| [[sv:Reumatoid artrit]]
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| [[tr:Romatoid artrit]]
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| [[zh:類風濕性關節炎]]
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