Prostate cancer primary prevention
Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [2]
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Overview
Prevention methods
Vitamins and medication
Evidence from epidemiological studies supports protective roles in reducing prostate cancer for dietary selenium, vitamin E, lycopene, and soy foods. High plasma levels of Vitamin D may also have a protective effect.[1] Estrogens from fermented soybeans and other plant sources (called phytoestrogens) may also help prevent prostate cancer.[2] The selective estrogen receptor modulator drug toremifene has shown promise in early trials.[3][4] Two medications which block the conversion of testosterone to dihydrotestosterone, finasteride[5] and dutasteride,[6] have also shown some promise. The use of these medications for primary prevention is still in the testing phase, and they are not widely used for this purpose. The initial problem with these medications is that they may preferentially block the development of lower-grade prostate tumors, leading to a relatively greater chance of higher grade cancers, and negating any overall survival improvement. More recent research found that finasteride did not increase the percentage of higher grade cancers.
A 2008 study update found that finasteride reduces the incidence of prostate cancer by 30%. In the original study it turns that that the smaller prostate caused by finasteride means that a doctor is more likely to hit upon cancer nests and more likely to find aggressive-looking cells. Most of the men in the study who had cancer — aggressive or not — chose to be treated and many had their prostates removed. A pathologist then carefully examined every one of those 500 prostates and compared the kinds of cancers found at surgery to those initially diagnosed at biopsy. Finasteride did not increase the risk of High-Grade prostate cancer.[7][8]
Green tea may be protective (due to its polyphenol content),[9] although the most comprehensive clinical study indicates that it has no protective effect.[10] A 2006 study of green tea derivatives demonstrated promising prostate cancer prevention in patients at high risk for the disease.[11] Recent research published in the Journal of the National Cancer Institute suggests that taking multivitamins more than seven times a week can increase the risks of contracting the disease.[12][13] This research was unable to highlight the exact vitamins responsible for this increase (almost double), although they suggest that vitamin A, vitamin E and beta-carotene may lie at its heart. It is advised that those taking multivitamins never exceed the stated daily dose on the label. Scientists recommend a healthy, well balanced diet rich in fiber, and to reduce intake of meat.
A 2007 study published in the Journal of the National Cancer Institute found that men eating cauliflower, broccoli, or one of the other cruciferous vegetables, more than once a week were 40% less likely to develop prostate cancer than men who rarely ate those vegetables.[14][15] The phytochemicals indole-3-carbinol and diindolylmethane, found in cruciferous vegetables, has antiandrogenic and immune modulating properties.[16][17]
Ejaculation frequency
In 2003, an Australian research team led by Graham Giles of The Cancer Council Australia concluded that frequent masturbation by males appears to help prevent the development of prostate cancer.[18][19] Australian research concluded that the more men ejaculate between the ages of 20 and 50, the less likely they are to develop prostate cancer. The protective effect is greatest while men are in their twenties: those who had ejaculated more than five times per week in their twenties, for instance, were one-third less likely to develop aggressive prostate cancer later in life. The results contradict those of previous studies, which have suggested that having had many sexual partners, or a high frequency of sexual activity, increases the risk of prostate cancer by up to 40 percent. The key difference is that these earlier studies defined sexual activity as sexual intercourse, whereas this study focused on the number of ejaculations, whether or not intercourse was involved.[20] Another study completed in 2004 reported that "Most categories of ejaculation frequency were unrelated to risk of prostate cancer. However, high ejaculation frequency was related to decreased risk of total prostate cancer." The report abstract concluded, "Our results suggest that ejaculation frequency is not related to increased risk of prostate cancer." [21]
More fish oil, less vegetable oil
A high consumption of omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), which are found in most types of vegetable oil (e.g. corn oil - the most consumed oil in USA, soybean oil, sunflower oil, etc.), increased prostate tumor growth, speeded up histopathological progression, and decreased survival, while the omega-3 fatty acids (e.g. in fish oil) had the opposite, beneficial effect[22].
Myristic and palmitic saturated fatty acids
Some researches have indicated that some specific saturated fatty acids (myristic acid[23][24][25] and palmitic acid[24][25] are associated with increased risk of prostate cancer in a dose-dependent manner. Another study further investigated these and other saturated fatty acids.[25] However it's still uncertain if this association is a cause or consequence of the disease.
References
- ↑ Wigle DT, Turner MC, Gomes J, Parent ME (2008). "Role of hormonal and other factors in human prostate cancer". J Toxicol Environ Health B Crit Rev. 11 (3–4): 242–59. doi:10.1080/10937400701873548. PMID 18368555. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (help) - ↑ Strom, SS (1999). "Phytoestrogen intake and prostate cancer: a case-control study using a new database". Nutr Cancer. 33 (1): 20–5. PMID 10227039. Unknown parameter
|coauthors=ignored (help) Erratum in: Nutr Cancer 2000;36(2):243. - ↑ Steiner, MS (2002). "Acapodene (GTx-006) reduces high-grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia in phase II clinical trial (abstract)". Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol. 21: 180a. Unknown parameter
|coauthors=ignored (help) - ↑ Price, D (2005). "Double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of toremifene for the prevention of prostate cancer in men with high-grade prostatic intrapeithelial neoplasia (abstract)". J Clin Oncol. 23: 106s. Unknown parameter
|coauthors=ignored (help) - ↑ Thompson, IM (2003). "The influence of finasteride on the development of prostate cancer". N Engl J Med. 349 (3): 215–24. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa030660. PMID 12824459. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (help) - ↑ Andriole, GL (2004). "Effect of dutasteride on the detection of prostate cancer in men with benign prostatic hyperplasia". Urology. 64 (3): 537–41, discussion 542–3. doi:10.1016/j.urology.2004.04.084. PMID 15351586. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (help) - ↑ Gine Kolata. "New Take on a Prostate Drug, and a New Debate". NY Times date = June 15, 2008. Retrieved 2008-06-15.
- ↑ Potosky A, Miller B, Albertsen P, Kramer B (2008). "Finasteride Does Not Increase the Risk of High-Grade Prostate Cancer: A Bias-Adjusted Modeling Approach". Cancer Prevention Research. Published Online First on May 18, 2008 as 10.1158/1940-6207.CAPR-08-0092: 174. doi:10.1158/1940-6207.CAPR-08-0092.
- ↑ Lee AH, Fraser ML, Meng X, Binns CW (2006). "Protective effects of green tea against prostate cancer". Expert Rev Anticancer Ther. 6 (4): 507–13. doi:10.1586/14737140.6.4.507. PMID 16613539. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (help) - ↑ Kikuchi N, Ohmori K, Shimazu T; et al. (2006). "No association between green tea and prostate cancer risk in Japanese men: the Ohsaki Cohort Study". Br. J. Cancer. 95 (3): 371–3. doi:10.1038/sj.bjc.6603230. PMID 16804523. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (help) - ↑ Bettuzzi S, Brausi M, Rizzi F, Castagnetti G, Peracchia G, Corti A (2006). "Chemoprevention of human prostate cancer by oral administration of green tea catechins in volunteers with high-grade prostate intraepithelial neoplasia: a preliminary report from a one-year proof-of-principle study". Cancer Res. 66 (2): 1234–40. doi:10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-05-1145. PMID 16424063.
- ↑ "Multivitamin prostate warning". Health. BBC NEWS. 2007-05-16. Retrieved 2008-04-23.
- ↑ Lawson KA, Wright ME, Subar A, Mouw T, Hollenbeck A, Schatzkin A, Leitzmann MF (2007). "Multivitamin use and risk of prostate cancer in the National Institutes of Health-AARP Diet and Health Study". J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 99 (10): 754–64. doi:10.1093/jnci/djk177. PMID 17505071. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (help) - ↑ "Broccoli May Help Cut Prostate Cancer, Broccoli, Cauliflower May Make Aggressive Prostate Cancer Less Likely". CBS News. 2007-07-24. Retrieved 2008-04-23.
- ↑ Kirsh VA, Peters U, Mayne ST, Subar AF, Chatterjee N, Johnson CC, Hayes RB (2007). "Prospective study of fruit and vegetable intake and risk of prostate cancer". J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 99 (15): 1200–9. doi:10.1093/jnci/djm065. PMID 17652276. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (help) - ↑ Sarkar FH, Li Y (2004). "Indole-3-carbinol and prostate cancer". J. Nutr. 134 (12 Suppl): 3493S–3498S. PMID 15570059. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (help) - ↑ Hsu JC, Zhang J, Dev A, Wing A, Bjeldanes LF, Firestone GL (2005). "Indole-3-carbinol inhibition of androgen receptor expression and downregulation of androgen responsiveness in human prostate cancer cells". Carcinogenesis. 26 (11): 1896–904. doi:10.1093/carcin/bgi155. PMID 15958518. Retrieved 2008-09-12. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (help) - ↑ [1]Giles, et al., Sexual factors and prostate cancer, BJU International, Volume 92 Issue 3, Ausust 2003, pp. 211-216
- ↑
- ↑ Douglas Fox (2003-07-16). "Masturbating may protect against prostate cancer". New Scientist. Retrieved 2008-04-23.
- ↑ Leitzmann MF, Platz EA, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC, Giovannucci E (2004). "Ejaculation frequency and subsequent risk of prostate cancer". JAMA. 291 (13): 1578–86. doi:10.1001/jama.291.13.1578. PMID 15069045. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (help) - ↑ Yong Q. Chen, at al (2007). "Modulation of prostate cancer genetic risk by omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids". The Journal of Clinical Investigation. 117 (7). doi:10.1172/JCI31494. PMID 1890998. Retrieved 2008-11-30. Text "pages: 1866-1875" ignored (help)
- ↑ Männistö S, Pietinen P, Virtanen MJ, Salminen I, Albanes D, Giovannucci E, Virtamo J (2003). "Fatty acids and risk of prostate cancer in a nested case-control study in male smokers" (PDF). Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 12 (12): 1422–8. PMID 14693732. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (help) - ↑ 24.0 24.1 Kurahashi N, Inoue M, Iwasaki M, Sasazuki S, Tsugane AS (2008). "Dairy product, saturated fatty acid, and calcium intake and prostate cancer in a prospective cohort of Japanese men". Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 17 (4): 930–7. doi:10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-07-2681. PMID 18398033. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (help) - ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 Crowe FL, Allen NE, Appleby PN, Overvad K, Aardestrup IV, Johnsen NF, Tjønneland A, Linseisen J, Kaaks R, Boeing H, Kröger J, Trichopoulou A, Zavitsanou A, Trichopoulos D, Sacerdote C, Palli D, Tumino R, Agnoli C, Kiemeney LA, Bueno-de-Mesquita HB, Chirlaque MD, Ardanaz E, Larrañaga N, Quirós JR, Sánchez MJ, González CA, Stattin P, Hallmans G, Bingham S, Khaw KT, Rinaldi S, Slimani N, Jenab M, Riboli E, Key TJ (2008). "Fatty acid composition of plasma phospholipids and risk of prostate cancer in a case-control analysis nested within the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition". Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 88 (5): 1353–63. PMID 18996872. Unknown parameter
|month=ignored (help)