Methamphetamine: Difference between revisions

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{{Infobox drug
{{DrugProjectFormSinglePage
| verifiedrevid = 589084691
|authorTag=
| IUPAC_name = ''N''-methyl-1-phenylpropan-2-amine
| image = methamphetamine.png
| alt = An image of the methamphetamine compound
| image2 = Methamphetamine molecule from xtal ball.png
| width2 = 250px
| alt2 = Ball-and-stick model of the methamphetamine molecule


<!--Clinical data-->
| tradename = Desoxyn
| Drugs.com = {{Drugs.com|monograph|methamphetamine-hydrochloride}}
| pregnancy_AU =
| pregnancy_US = C
| dependency_liability = ''Physical'': none<br />''Psychological'': high
| addiction_liability = Very high
| legal_AU = S8
| legal_CA = Schedule I
| legal_NZ = Class A
| legal_UK = Class A
| legal_US = Schedule II
| legal_UN = Psychotropic Schedule II
| legal_status = Rx
| licence_US = Desoxyn
| routes_of_administration= ''Medical'': oral<br>''Recreational'': oral, intravenous, insufflation, inhalation, suppository


<!--Pharmacokinetic data-->
<!--Overview-->
| bioavailability= Oral: Varies widely<ref name="Pubchem1" /><br/>Rectal: 99%<br/>IV: 100%
| protein_bound = Varies widely<ref name="Pubchem1">{{cite encyclopedia | title=Methamphetamine | section-url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/1206#section=Toxicity | work=PubChem Compound | publisher = National Center for Biotechnology Information | accessdate=31 December 2013 | section=Toxicity}}</ref>
| metabolism =[[CYP2D6]],<ref name="FDA Pharmacokinetics">{{cite web | title = Adderall XR Prescribing Information | url = http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2013/021303s026lbl.pdf | pages = 12–13 | work = United States Food and Drug Administration |date=December 2013 | accessdate = 30 December 2013 }}</ref> [[Dopamine β-hydroxylase|DBH]],<ref name="DBH ref">{{cite book | title=Foye's Principles of Medicinal Chemistry | year=2013 | publisher=Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins | location=Philadelphia | isbn=1609133455 | page=648 | author=Lemke TL, Williams DA, Roche VF, Zito W|edition=7th ed. | quote=Alternatively, direct oxidation of amphetamine by DA β-hydroxylase can afford norephedrine.}}</ref> [[Flavin-containing monooxygenase|FMO3]],<ref name="FMO">{{cite journal | author = Krueger SK, Williams DE | title = Mammalian flavin-containing monooxygenases: structure/function, genetic polymorphisms and role in drug metabolism | journal = Pharmacol. Ther. | volume = 106 | issue = 3 | pages = 357–387 |date=June 2005 | pmid = 15922018 | pmc = 1828602 | doi = 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2005.01.001 }}</ref> [[butyrate-CoA ligase|XM-ligase]],<ref name="Benzoic1" /> and [[glycine N-acyltransferase|ACGNAT]]<ref name="Benzoic2" />
| elimination_half-life= 9–12&nbsp;hours<ref name="Schep"/>
| excretion = [[Renal]]


<!--Identifiers-->
|genericName=
| CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}}
| CAS_number_Ref = {{cascite|correct|??}}
| CAS_number=537-46-2
| ATC_prefix=N06
| ATC_suffix=BA03
| ATC_supplemental=
| ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}
| ChEBI = 6809
| IUPHAR_ligand = 4803
| PDB_ligand =
| StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
| StdInChI = 1S/C10H15N/c1-9(11-2)8-10-6-4-3-5-7-10/h3-7,9,11H,8H2,1-2H3
| StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
| StdInChIKey = MYWUZJCMWCOHBA-UHFFFAOYSA-N
| PubChem=1206
| DrugBank_Ref = {{drugbankcite|correct|drugbank}}
| DrugBank=DB01577
| ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}}
| ChemSpiderID = 1169
| NIAID_ChemDB =
| UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}}
| UNII = 44RAL3456C
| KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}}
| KEGG = D08187
| ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}
| ChEMBL = 1201201


<!--Chemical data-->
| C=10 | H=15 | N=1
| molecular_weight = 149.2337 g/mol
| smiles = N(C(Cc1ccccc1)C)C
| InChI = 1/C10H15N/c1-9(11-2)8-10-6-4-3-5-7-10/h3-7,9,11H,8H2,1-2H3
| InChIKey = MYWUZJCMWCOHBA-UHFFFAOYAT
| synonyms = ''N''-methylamphetamine, desoxyephedrine
| boiling_point = 212
| boiling_notes = <ref name="Pubchem2">{{cite encyclopedia | title=Methamphetamine | section-url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/1206#section=Chemical-and-Physical-Properties | work=PubChem Compound | publisher = National Center for Biotechnology Information | accessdate=31 December 2013 | section=Chemical and Physical Properties }}</ref> at {{nowrap|760 MM HG}}
| melting_point = 3
| melting_notes = <ref name="Chemspider">{{cite encyclopedia | section-url=http://www.chemspider.com/Chemical-Structure.1169 | work=Chemspider | title=Methmphetamine | accessdate=3 January 2013 | section=Properties: Predicted – EP{{pipe}}Suite }}</ref>
}}
'''Methamphetamine'''{{#tag:ref|Synonyms and alternate spellings include: metamfetamine ([[International Nonproprietary Name|International Nonproprietary Name (INN)]]), ''N''-methylamphetamine, desoxyephedrine, Syndrox, and Desoxyn.<ref name="EMCDDA profile">{{cite web |url=http://www.emcdda.europa.eu/publications/drug-profiles/methamphetamine |title=Methamphetamine |date=16 August 2010 |work=Drug profiles |publisher=[[European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction]] (EMCDDA) |accessdate=1 September 2011}}</ref><ref name="DB ID">{{cite encyclopedia | title=Methamphetamine | section-url=http://www.drugbank.ca/drugs/DB01577#identification | work=DrugBank | publisher= University of Alberta | accessdate=31 December 2013  | date=8 February 2013 | section=Identification }}</ref> Common slang terms for methamphetamine include: speed, meth, crystal, crystal meth, glass, shards, ice, and tic<ref>{{cite web|title=Meth Slang Names|url=http://www.methhelponline.com/meth-slang.htm|work=MethhelpOnline|accessdate=1 January 2014}}</ref> and, in New Zealand, "P".<ref>http://www.police.govt.nz/advice/drugs-and-alcohol/methamphetamine-and-law</ref>| group = "note" }} ({{IPAc-en|pron|ˌ|m|ɛ|θ|æ|m|ˈ|f|ɛ|t|əm|iː|n}}; contracted from {{nowrap|[[Methyl group|''N''-'''meth'''yl]]-[[amphetamine|'''a'''lpha-'''m'''ethyl'''ph'''en'''et'''hyl'''amine''']]}}) is a potent [[central nervous system]] (CNS) [[stimulant]] of the [[substituted phenethylamine|phenethylamine]] and [[substituted amphetamine|amphetamine]] [[chemical classification|classes]] that is used as a [[recreational drug use|recreational drug]] and, rarely, to treat [[attention deficit hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD) and [[obesity]]. Methamphetamine exists as two [[enantiomer]]s, [[dextrorotation and levorotation|dextrorotary and levorotary]].{{#tag:ref|Enantiomers are molecules that are ''mirror images'' of one another; they are structurally identical, but of the opposite orientation.|group = "note"}} Dextromethamphetamine is a stronger CNS stimulant than [[levomethamphetamine]]; however, both are neurotoxic, addictive and produce the same toxicity symptoms at high doses. Although rarely prescribed due to the potential risks, methamphetamine hydrochloride is approved by the [[Food and Drug Administration|United States Food and Drug Administration]] (USFDA) under the trade name ''Desoxyn''. Recreationally, methamphetamine is used to [[aphrodisiac|increase sexual desire]], [[euphoria|lift the mood]], and [[wakefulness-promoting agent|increase energy]], allowing some users to engage in sexual activity continuously for several days straight.<!--READ THIS BEFORE EDITING THE LEAD. Every statement in the lead has a reference in the body of the article. Do not delete something because you think it's dubious; look for the statement ref in the body text first.-->


Methamphetamine may be sold illegally, either as pure dextromethamphetamine or in an [[racemic mixture|equal parts]] mixture of the right and left-handed molecules (i.e., 50%&nbsp;levomethamphetamine and 50%&nbsp;dextromethamphetamine). Both dextromethamphetamine and racemic methamphetamine are [[list of Schedule II drugs (US)|schedule II]] controlled substances in the United States. Similarly, the production, distribution, sale, and possession of methamphetamine is restricted or illegal in many other countries due to its placement in schedule II of the [[Convention on Psychotropic Substances|United Nations Convention on Psychotropic Substances]] treaty. In contrast, [[levomethamphetamine]] is an [[over-the-counter drug]] in the United States.<ref name="Vicks" group="note" /><!--READ THIS BEFORE EDITING THE LEAD. Every statement in the lead has a reference in the body of the article. Do not delete something because you think it's dubious; look for the statement ref in the body text first.-->


In low doses, methamphetamine can cause an [[euphoria|elevated mood]] and increase alertness, concentration, and energy in fatigued individuals. At higher doses, it can induce [[stimulant psychosis#substituted amphetamines|psychosis]], [[rhabdomyolysis]] and [[cerebral hemorrhage]]. Methamphetamine is known to have a high potential for [[substance abuse|abuse]] and [[substance dependence|addiction]]. Heavy recreational use of methamphetamine may result in psychosis or lead to [[post-acute-withdrawal syndrome]], a withdrawal syndrome that can persist for months beyond the typical withdrawal period.<sup>[[#i|&#91;i&#93;]]</sup> Unlike [[amphetamine]], methamphetamine is [[neurotoxicity|neurotoxic]] to humans, damaging both [[dopamine]] and [[serotonin]] [[neuron]]s in the CNS.<sup>[[#i|&#91;i&#93;]]</sup> Contrary to the long-term use of amphetamine,<sup>[[#iii|&#91;iii&#93;]]</sup> there is evidence that methamphetamine causes brain damage from long-term use in humans;<sup>[[#ii|&#91;ii&#93;]]</sup> this damage includes adverse changes in brain structure and function, such as reductions in [[gray matter]] volume in several brain regions and adverse changes in markers of metabolic integrity.<sup>[[#ii|&#91;ii&#93;]]</sup><!--READ THIS BEFORE EDITING THE LEAD. Every statement in the lead has a reference in the body of the article. Do not delete something because you think it's dubious; look for the statement ref in the body text first.-->
|aOrAn=
{{TOC limit|3}}
 
a
 
|drugClass=
 
 
 
|indication=
 
 
 
|hasBlackBoxWarning=
 
Yes
 
|adverseReactions=
 
 
 
<!--Black Box Warning-->
 
|blackBoxWarningTitle=
Warning
 
|blackBoxWarningBody=
<i><span style="color:#FF0000;"></span></i>
 
* METHAMPHETAMINE HAS A HIGH POTENTIAL FOR ABUSE. IT SHOULD THUS BE TRIED ONLY IN WEIGHT REDUCTION PROGRAMS FOR PATIENTS IN WHOM ALTERNATIVE THERAPY HAS BEEN INEFFECTIVE. ADMINISTRATION OF METHAMPHETAMINE FOR PROLONGED PERIODS OF TIME IN OBESITY MAY LEAD TO DRUG DEPENDENCE AND MUST BE AVOIDED. PARTICULAR ATTENTION SHOULD BE PAID TO THE POSSIBILITY OF SUBJECTS OBTAINING METHAMPHETAMINE FOR NON-THERAPEUTIC USE OR DISTRIBUTION TO OTHERS, AND THE DRUG SHOULD BE PRESCRIBED OR DISPENSED SPARINGLY. MISUSE OF METHAMPHETAMINE MAY CAUSE SUDDEN DEATH AND SERIOUS CARDIOVASCULAR ADVERSE EVENTS.
 
<!--Adult Indications and Dosage-->
 
<!--FDA-Labeled Indications and Dosage (Adult)-->
 
|fdaLIADAdult=
 
=====Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity=====
 
*Methamphetamine hydrochloride tablets are indicated as an integral part of a total treatment program which typically includes other remedial measures (psychological, educational, social) for a stabilizing effect in children over 6 years of age with a behavioral syndrome characterized by the following group of developmentally inappropriate symptoms: moderate to severe distractibility, short attention span, hyperactivity, emotional lability, and impulsivity. The diagnosis of this syndrome should not be made with finality when these symptoms are only of comparatively recent origin. Nonlocalizing (soft) neurological signs, learning disability, and abnormal EEG may or may not be present, and a diagnosis of central nervous system dysfunction may or may not be warranted.
*The limited usefulness of methamphetamine hydrochloride tablets should be weighed against possible risks inherent in use of the drug, such as those described below.
 
======Dosing information======
*Methamphetamine hydrochloride tablets are given orally.
*Methamphetamine should be administered at the lowest effective dosage, and dosage should be individually adjusted. Late evening medication should be avoided because of the resulting insomnia.
*For treatment of children 6 years or older with a behavioral syndrome characterized by moderate to severe distractibility, short attention span, hyperactivity, emotional lability and impulsivity: an initial dose of 5 mg methamphetamine hydrochloride tablets once or twice a day is recommended. Daily dosage may be raised in increments of 5 mg at weekly intervals until an optimum clinical response is achieved. The usual effective dose is 20 to 25 mg daily. The total daily dose may be given in two divided doses daily.
*Where possible, drug administration should be interrupted occasionally to determine if there is a recurrence of behavioral symptoms sufficient to require continued therapy.
 
=====Exogenous Obesity=====
*As a short-term (i.e., a few weeks) adjunct in a regimen of weight reduction based on caloric restriction, for patients in whom obesity is refractory to alternative therapy, e.g., repeated diets, group programs, and other drugs.
======Dosing Information======
*One 5 mg tablet should be taken one-half hour before each meal. Treatment should not exceed a few weeks in duration. Methamphetamine is not recommended for use as an anorectic agent in children under 12 years of age.
 
<!--Non–Guideline-Supported Use (Adult)-->
 
|offLabelAdultNoGuideSupport=
 
 
There is limited information regarding <i>Off-Label Non–Guideline-Supported Use</i> of {{PAGENAME}} in adult patients.
 
<!--Pediatric Indications and Dosage-->
 
<!--FDA-Labeled Indications and Dosage (Pediatric)-->
 
|fdaLIADPed=
 
 
There is limited information regarding <i>FDA-Labeled Use</i> of {{PAGENAME}} in pediatric patients.
 
<!--Off-Label Use and Dosage (Pediatric)-->
 
<!--Guideline-Supported Use (Pediatric)-->
 
|offLabelPedGuideSupport=
 
 
There is limited information regarding <i>Off-Label Guideline-Supported Use</i> of {{PAGENAME}} in pediatric patients.
 
<!--Non–Guideline-Supported Use (Pediatric)-->
 
|offLabelPedNoGuideSupport=
 
 
There is limited information regarding <i>Off-Label Non–Guideline-Supported Use</i> of {{PAGENAME}} in pediatric patients.
 
<!--Contraindications-->
 
|contraindications=
 
* Methamphetamine hydrochloride tablets are contraindicated during or within 14 days following the administration of monoamine oxidase inhibitors; hypertensive crisis may result. It is also contraindicated in patients with glaucoma, advanced arteriosclerosis, symptomatic cardiovascular disease, moderate to severe hypertension, hyperthyroidism or known hypersensitivity or idiosyncrasy to sympathomimetic amines. Methamphetamine should not be given to patients who are in an agitated state or who have a history of drug abuse.
 
<!--Warnings-->
 
|warnings=
 
* Tolerance to the anorectic effect usually develops within a few weeks. When this occurs, the recommended dose should not be exceeded in an attempt to increase the effect; rather, the drug should be discontinued
=====Serious Cardiovascular Events
 
=====
 
======Sudden Death and Preexisting Structural Cardiac Abnormalities or Other Serious Heart Problems======*Children and Adolescents: Sudden death has been reported in association with CNS stimulant treatment at usual doses in children and adolescents with structural cardiac abnormalities or other serious heart problems. Although some serious heart problems alone carry an increased risk of sudden death, stimulant products generally should not be used in children or adolescents with known serious structural cardiac abnormalities, cardiomyopathy, serious heart rhythm abnormalities, or other serious cardiac problems that may place them at increased vulnerability to the sympathomimetic effects of a stimulant drug*Adults: Sudden deaths, stroke, and myocardial infarction have been reported in adults taking stimulant drugs at usual doses for ADHD. Although the role of stimulants in these adult cases is also unknown, adults have a greater likelihood than children of having serious structural cardiac abnormalities, cardiomyopathy, serious heart rhythm abnormalities, coronary artery disease, or other serious cardiac problems. Adults with such abnormalities should also generally not be treated with stimulant drugs.
 
======Hypertension and other Cardiovascular Conditions======
 
*Stimulant medications cause a modest increase in average blood pressure (about 2 to 4 mmHg) and average heart rate (about 3 to 6 bpm), and individuals may have larger increases. While the mean changes alone would not be expected to have short-term consequences, all patients should be monitored for larger changes in heart rate and blood pressure. Caution is indicated in treating patients whose underlying medical conditions might be compromised by increases in blood pressure or heart rate, e.g., those with pre-existing hypertension, heart failure, recent myocardial infarction, or ventricular arrhythmia.
 
======Assessing Cardiovascular Status in Patients being Treated with Stimulant Medications======
 
*Children, adolescents, or adults who are being considered for treatment with stimulant medications should have a careful history (including assessment for a family history of sudden death or ventricular arrhythmia) and physical exam to assess for the presence of cardiac disease, and should receive further cardiac evaluation if findings suggest such disease (e.g., electrocardiogram and echocardiogram). Patients who develop symptoms such as exertional chest pain, unexplained syncope, or other symptoms suggestive of cardiac disease during stimulant treatment should undergo a prompt cardiac evaluation.
 
=====Psychiatric Adverse Events
 
=====
 
======Preexisting Psychosis======
 
*Administration of stimulants may exacerbate symptoms of behavior disturbance and thought disorder in patients with a preexisting psychotic disorder.
 
======Bipolar Illness======
 
*Particular care should be taken in using stimulants to treat ADHD in patients with comorbid bipolar disorder because of concern for possible induction of a mixed/manic episode in such patients. Prior to initiating treatment with a stimulant, patients with comorbid depressive symptoms should be adequately screened to determine if they are at risk for bipolar disorder; such screening should include a detailed psychiatric history, including a family history of suicide, bipolar disorder, and depression.
 
======Emergence of New Psychotic or Manic Symptoms======
 
*Treatment emergent psychotic or manic symptoms, e.g., hallucinations, delusional thinking, or mania in children and adolescents without a prior history of psychotic illness or mania can be caused by stimulants at usual doses. If such symptoms occur, consideration should be given to a possible causal role of the stimulant, and discontinuation of treatment may be appropriate. In a pooled analysis of multiple short-term, placebo-controlled studies, such symptoms occurred in about 0.1% (four patients with events out of 3,482 exposed to methylphenidate or amphetamine for several weeks at usual doses) of stimulant-treated patients compared to 0 in placebo-treated patients.
 
======Aggression======
 
*Aggressive behavior or hostility is often observed in children and adolescents with ADHD, and has been reported in clinical trials and the postmarketing experience of some medications indicated for the treatment of ADHD. Although there is no systematic evidence that stimulants cause aggressive behavior or hostility, patients beginning treatment for ADHD should be monitored for the appearance of or worsening of aggressive behavior or hostility.
 
======Long-Term Suppression of Growth
 
======
 
*Careful follow-up of weight and height in children ages 7 to 10 years who were randomized to either methylphenidate or non-medication treatment groups over 14 months, as well as in naturalistic subgroups of newly methylphenidate-treated and non-medication treated children over 36 months (to the ages of 10 to 13 years), suggests that consistently medicated children (i.e., treatment for 7 days per week throughout the year) have a temporary slowing in growth rate (on average, a total of about 2 cm less growth in height and 2.7 kg less growth in weight over 3 years), without evidence of growth rebound during this period of development. Published data are inadequate to determine whether chronic use of amphetamines may cause a similar suppression of growth, however, it is anticipated that they likely have this effect as well. Therefore, growth should be monitored during treatment with stimulants, and patients who are not growing or gaining height or weight as expected may need to have their treatment interrupted.
 
======Seizures
 
======
 
*There is some clinical evidence that stimulants may lower the convulsive threshold in patients with prior history of seizures, in patients with prior EEG abnormalities in absence of seizures, and, very rarely, in patients without a history of seizures and no prior EEG evidence of seizures. In the presence of seizures, the drug should be discontinued.
 
======Peripheral Vasculopathy, including Raynaud's phenomenon
 
======
 
*Stimulants, including methamphetamine hydrochloride tablets, used to treat ADHD are associated with peripheral vasculopathy, including Raynaud's phenomenon. Signs and symptoms are usually intermittent and mild; however, very rare sequelae include digital ulceration and/or soft tissue breakdown. Effects of peripheral vasculopathy, including Raynaud's phenomenon, were observed in post-marketing reports at different times and at therapeutic doses in all age groups throughout the course of treatment. Signs and symptoms generally improve after reduction in dose or discontinuation of drug. Careful observation for digital changes is necessary during treatment with ADHD stimulants. Further clinical evaluation (e.g., rheumatology referral) may be appropriate for certain patients.
 
======Visual Disturbance
 
======
 
*Difficulties with accommodation and blurring of vision have been reported with stimulant treatment.
 
====Precautions====
 
======General======
 
*Methamphetamine hydrochloride tablets should be used with caution in patients with even mild hypertension.
*Methamphetamine should not be used to combat fatigue or to replace rest in normal persons.
*Prescribing and dispensing of methamphetamine should be limited to the smallest amount that is feasible at one time in order to minimize the possibility of overdosage.
<!--Adverse Reactions-->
 
<!--Clinical Trials Experience-->
 
|clinicalTrials=
 
*The following are adverse reactions in decreasing order of severity within each category that have been reported:
 
*Cardiovascular: Elevation of blood pressure, tachycardia and palpitation. Fatal cardiorespiratory arrest has been reported, mostly in the context of abuse/misuse.
 
*Central Nervous System: Psychotic episodes have been rarely reported at recommended doses. Dizziness, dysphoria, overstimulation, euphoria, insomnia, tremor, restlessness and headache. Exacerbation of motor and phonic tics and Tourette's syndrome.
 
*Gastrointestinal: Diarrhea, constipation, dryness of mouth, unpleasant taste and other gastrointestinal disturbances.
 
*Hypersensitivity: Urticaria.
 
*Endocrine: Impotence and changes in libido; frequent or prolonged erections.
 
*Miscellaneous: Suppression of growth has been reported with the long-term use of stimulants in children
 
 
<!--Postmarketing Experience-->
 
|postmarketing=
 
There is limited information regarding <i>Postmarketing Experience</i> of {{PAGENAME}} in the drug label.
 
=====Body as a Whole=====
 
 
 
=====Cardiovascular=====
 
 
 
=====Digestive=====
 
 
 
=====Endocrine=====
 
 
 
=====Hematologic and Lymphatic=====
 
 
 
=====Metabolic and Nutritional=====
 
 
 
=====Musculoskeletal=====
 
 
 
=====Neurologic=====
 
 
 
=====Respiratory=====
 
 
 
=====Skin and Hypersensitivy Reactions=====
 
 
 
=====Special Senses=====
 
 
 
=====Urogenital=====
 
 
 
=====Miscellaneous=====
 
 
 
<!--Drug Interactions-->
 
|drugInteractions=
 
* Insulin requirements in diabetes mellitus may be altered in association with the use of methamphetamine and the concomitant dietary regimen.
 
*Methamphetamine may decrease the hypotensive effect of guanethidine.
 
*Methamphetamine hydrochloride tablets should not be used concurrently with monoamine oxidase inhibitors.*Concurrent administration of tricyclic antidepressants and indirect-acting sympathomimetic amines such as the amphetamines, should be closely supervised and dosage carefully adjusted.
 
*Phenothiazines are reported in the literature to antagonize the CNS stimulant action of the amphetamines.
 
=====Drug/Laboratory Test Interactions=====
 
*Literature reports suggest that amphetamines may be associated with significant elevation of plasma corticosteroids. This should be considered if determination of plasma corticosteroid levels is desired in a person receiving amphetamines.<!--Use in Specific Populations-->
 
|useInPregnancyFDA=
=====Teratogenic effects=====
Pregnancy Category C
*Methamphetamine has been shown to have teratogenic and embryocidal effects in mammals given high multiples of the human dose. There are no adequate and well controlled studies in pregnant women. Methamphetamine hydrochloride tablets should not be used during pregnancy unless the potential benefit justifies the potential risk to the fetus.
 
=====Nonteratogenic effects=====
*Infants born to mothers dependent on amphetamines have an increased risk of premature delivery and low birth weight. Also, these infants may experience symptoms of withdrawal as demonstrated by dysphoria, including agitation and significant lassitude.
|useInPregnancyAUS=
* '''Australian Drug Evaluation Committee (ADEC) Pregnancy Category'''
 
There is no Australian Drug Evaluation Committee (ADEC) guidance on usage of {{PAGENAME}} in women who are pregnant.
 
|useInLaborDelivery=
There is no FDA guidance on use of {{PAGENAME}} during labor and delivery.
 
|useInNursing=
*Amphetamines are excreted in human milk. Mothers taking amphetamines should be advised to refrain from nursing.
 
|useInPed=
*Safety and effectiveness for use as an anorectic agent in children below the age of 12 years have not been established. Long-term effects of methamphetamine in children have not been established .
 
*Drug treatment is not indicated in all cases of the behavioral syndrome characterized by moderate to severe distractibility, short attention span, hyperactivity, emotional lability and impulsivity. It should be considered only in light of the complete history and evaluation of the child. The decision to prescribe methamphetamine hydrochloride tablets should depend on the physician's assessment of the chronicity and severity of the child's symptoms and their appropriateness for his/her age. Prescription should not depend solely on the presence of one or more of the behavioral characteristics.When these symptoms are associated with acute stress reactions, treatment with methamphetamine hydrochloride tablets is usually not indicated.
Clinical experience suggests that in psychotic children, administration of methamphetamine hydrochloride tablets may exacerbate symptoms of behavior disturbance and thought disorder.
 
*Amphetamines have been reported to exacerbate motor and phonic tics and Tourette's syndrome. Therefore, clinical evaluation for tics and Tourette's syndrome in children and their families should precede use of stimulant medications.
 
|useInGeri=
*Clinical Studies of methamphetamine hydrochloride tablets did not include sufficient numbers of subjects age 65 years and over to determine whether elderly subjects respond differently from younger subjects. Other reported clinical experience has not identified differences in responses between the elderly and younger patients. In general, dose selection for an elderly patient should be cautious, usually starting at the low end of the dosing range, reflecting the greater frequency of decreased hepatic, renal or cardiac function, and of concomitant disease or other drug therapy observed in this population.
|useInRace=
There is no FDA guidance on the use of {{PAGENAME}} with respect to specific racial populations.
 
|useInRenalImpair=
There is no FDA guidance on the use of {{PAGENAME}} in patients with renal impairment.
 
|useInHepaticImpair=
There is no FDA guidance on the use of {{PAGENAME}} in patients with hepatic impairment.
 
|useInReproPotential=
There is no FDA guidance on the use of {{PAGENAME}} in women of reproductive potentials and males.
 
|useInImmunocomp=
There is no FDA guidance one the use of {{PAGENAME}} in patients who are immunocompromised.
 
<!--Administration and Monitoring-->
 
|administration=
 
* Oral
 
* Intravenous
 
|monitoring=
 
There is limited information regarding <i>Monitoring</i> of {{PAGENAME}} in the drug label.
 
* Description
 
<!--IV Compatibility-->


== Uses ==
|IVCompat=


=== Medical ===
There is limited information regarding <i>IV Compatibility</i> of {{PAGENAME}} in the drug label.


In the United States, methamphetamine hydrochloride, under the trade name ''Desoxyn'', has been approved by the FDA for treating [[attention deficit hyperactivity disorder|ADHD]] and [[obesity|exogenous obesity]] (obesity originating from factors outside the patient's control) in both adults and children;<ref name="Desoxyn" /><ref>{{Cite journal|url = http://www.nature.com/npp/journal/v37/n3/full/npp2011276a.html|title = Is Cognitive Functioning Impaired in Methamphetamine Users? A Critical Review|last = Hart|first = Carl|date = 16 November 2011|journal = Neuropsychopharmacology|doi = 10.1038/npp.2011.276|pmid = 22089317|access-date = 6 March 2015|last2 = Marvin|first2 = Caroline|last3 = Silver|first3 = Rae|last4 = Smith|first4 = Edward|volume=37|pmc=3260986|pages=586–608}}</ref> however, the FDA also indicates that the limited therapeutic usefulness of methamphetamine should be weighed against the inherent risks associated with its use.<ref name="Desoxyn" /> Methamphetamine is sometimes prescribed [[off label]] for [[narcolepsy]] and [[idiopathic hypersomnia]].<ref name="pmid8341891">{{vcite2 journal | vauthors = Mitler MM, Hajdukovic R, Erman MK | title = Treatment of narcolepsy with methamphetamine | journal = Sleep | volume = 16 | issue = 4 | pages = 306–317 | year = 1993 | pmid = 8341891 | pmc = 2267865 | doi = | url = }}</ref><ref>{{vcite2 journal | vauthors = Morgenthaler TI1, Kapur VK, Brown T, Swick TJ, Alessi C, Aurora RN, Boehlecke B, Chesson AL Jr, Friedman L, Maganti R, Owens J, Pancer J, Zak R; Standards of Practice Committee of the American Academy of Sleep Medicine. | title = Practice parameters for the treatment of narcolepsy and other hypersomnias of central origin. | journal = Sleep | volume =  | issue =  | pages =  | year = 2007 | pmid = 18246980 | pmc = 2276123 | doi = | url = }}</ref> In the United States, [[levomethamphetamine|methamphetamine's levorotary form]] is available in some over-the-counter nasal decongestant products, such as [[Vicks|Vicks VapoInhaler]].{{#tag:ref|The active ingredient in Vicks Vapoinhaler is listed as ''levmetamfetamine'', the [[International Nonproprietary Name|INN]] and [[United States Adopted Name|USAN]] of levomethamphetamine.<ref name="Vicks">{{cite encyclopedia | title=Vicks Vapoinhaler| section=Package Information | section-url=http://www.vicks.com/products/vapo-family/vapoinhaler-nasal-congestion-relief/| publisher=Vicks| accessdate=2 January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title=Levomethamphetamine| section=Identification | section-url=http://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/summary/summary.cgi?cid=36604#section=Identification | work=Pubchem Compound| publisher=National Center for Biotechnology Information | accessdate=2 January 2014}}</ref>|name="Vicks"|group = "note"}}
<!--Overdosage-->


As methamphetamine is associated with a high potential for misuse, the drug is regulated under the [[Controlled Substances Act]] and is [[List of Schedule II drugs (US)|listed under schedule II]] in the United States.<ref name="Desoxyn" /> Methamphetamine hydrochloride dispensed in the United States is required to include the following [[boxed warning]]:<ref name="Desoxyn" /> {{cquote|Methamphetamine has a high potential for abuse. It should thus be tried only in weight reduction programs for patients in whom alternative therapy has been ineffective. Administration of methamphetamine for prolonged periods of time in obesity may lead to drug dependence and must be avoided. Particular attention should be paid to the possibility of subjects obtaining methamphetamine for non-therapeutic use or distribution to others, and the drug should be prescribed or dispensed sparingly. Misuse of methamphetamine may cause sudden death and serious cardiovascular adverse effects.}}
|overdose=


=== Recreational ===
*Manifestations of acute overdosage with methamphetamine include restlessness, tremor, hyperreflexia, rapid respiration, confusion, assaultiveness, hallucinations, panic states, hyperpyrexia, and rhabdomyolysis. Fatigue and depression usually follow the central stimulation. Cardiovascular effects include arrhythmias, hypertension or hypotension, and circulatory collapse. Gastrointestinal symptoms include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal cramps. Fatal poisoning usually terminates in convulsions and coma.
{{Hatnote|See also: [[Party and play]] and the [[History and culture of substituted amphetamines#Recreational routes of administration|Recreational routes of methamphetamine administration]]}}


Methamphetamine is often used recreationally for its effects as a potent [[euphoriant]] and stimulant as well as [[aphrodisiac]] qualities.<ref name="SF Meth">{{cite AV media |date=August 2013 |title=San Francisco Meth Zombies |medium=TV documentary |url= |accessdate=4 January 2014 |publisher=National Geographic Channel |asin=B00EHAOBAO }}</ref> According to a [[National Geographic Channel|National Geographic]] TV documentary on methamphetamine, "an entire subculture known as party and play is based around methamphetamine use".<ref name="SF Meth" />  Members of this San Francisco sub-culture, which consists almost entirely of gay male methamphetamine users, will typically meet up through internet dating sites and have sex.<ref name="SF Meth" />  Due to its strong stimulant and aphrodisiac effects and inhibitory effect on [[ejaculation]], with repeated use, these sexual encounters will sometimes occur continuously for several days.<ref name="SF Meth" /> The crash following the use of methamphetamine in this manner is very often severe, with marked [[hypersomnia]].<ref name="SF Meth" />
*Consult with a Certified Poison Control Center regarding treatment for up to date guidance and advice. Management of acute methamphetamine intoxication is largely symptomatic and includes gastric evacuation, administration of activated charcoal, and sedation. Experience with hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis is inadequate to permit recommendations in this regard.
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==Contraindications==
*Acidification of urine increases methamphetamine excretion, but is believed to increase risk of acute renal failure if myoglobinuria is present. Intravenous phentolamine (Regitine1) has been suggested for possible acute, severe hypertension, if this complicates methamphetamine overdosage. Usually a gradual drop in blood pressure will result when sufficient sedation has been achieved. Chlorpromazine has been reported to be useful in decreasing CNS stimulation and sympathomimetic effects.
Methamphetamine is [[contraindicated]] in individuals with a history of [[substance use disorder]], [[heart disease]], or severe [[Irritability|agitation]] or anxiety, or in individuals currently experiencing [[arteriosclerosis]], [[glaucoma]],  [[hyperthyroidism]], or severe [[hypertension]].<ref name="Desoxyn" /> The USFDA states that individuals who have experienced [[hypersensitivity]] reactions to other stimulants in the past or are currently taking [[monoamine oxidase inhibitor]]s should not take methamphetamine.<ref name="Desoxyn" />  The USFDA also advises individuals with [[bipolar disorder]], [[Major depressive disorder|depression]], elevated [[blood pressure]], liver or kidney problems, [[mania]], [[psychosis]], [[Raynaud's phenomenon]], [[epileptic seizure|seizures]], [[thyroid]] problems, [[tic]]s, or [[Tourette syndrome]] to monitor their symptoms while taking methamphetamine.<ref name="Desoxyn" />  Due to the potential for stunted growth, the USFDA advises monitoring the height and weight of growing children and adolescents during treatment.<ref name="Desoxyn" />


== Side effects ==
There is limited information regarding <i>Chronic Overdose</i> of {{PAGENAME}} in the drug label.


=== Physical ===
<!--Pharmacology-->


The physical effects of methamphetamine can include [[Anorexia (symptom)|loss of appetite]], hyperactivity, [[dilated pupils]], [[Flushing (physiology)|flushed skin]], [[diaphoresis|excessive sweating]], [[Psychomotor agitation|increased movement]], dry mouth and [[bruxism|teeth grinding]] (leading to "[[meth mouth]]"), headache,  [[arrhythmias|irregular heartbeat]] (usually as [[tachycardia|accelerated heartbeat]] or [[bradycardia|slowed heartbeat]]), [[tachypnea|rapid breathing]], [[hypertension|high blood pressure]], [[hypotension|low blood pressure]], [[hyperthermia|high body temperature]], diarrhea, constipation, [[blurred vision]], [[dizziness]], [[Fasciculation|twitching]], [[numbness]], [[tremor]]s, dry skin, [[acne]], and [[pallor|pale appearance]].<ref name="Desoxyn" /><ref name="Westfall" /> Methamphetamine that is present in a mother's [[bloodstream]] can pass through the [[placenta]] to a [[fetus]] and is or be secreted into [[breast milk]].<ref name="pregnancy" /> Infants born to methamphetamine-abusing mothers were found to have a significantly smaller [[gestational]] age-adjusted head circumference and birth weight measurements.<ref name="pregnancy" /> Methamphetamine exposure was also associated with [[neonatal withdrawal]] symptoms of agitation, vomiting and fast breathing.<ref name="pregnancy">{{cite journal|author=Chomchai C, Na Manorom N, Watanarungsan P, Yossuck P, Chomchai S| pmid=15272773 |title=Methamphetamine abuse during pregnancy and its health impact on neonates born at Siriraj Hospital, Bangkok, Thailand. &#124; PubMed| publisher=| date=December 2010|volume=35|issue=1| journal=Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health| pages=228–231}}</ref> This withdrawal syndrome is relatively mild and only requires medical intervention in approximately&nbsp;4% of cases.<ref name="pmid17990840"/>
<!--Drug box 2-->


==== Meth mouth ====
|drugBox=
{{Main|Meth mouth}}
Methamphetamine users and addicts may lose their teeth abnormally quickly, regardless of the route of administration, from a condition informally known as [[meth mouth]].<ref name="pmid22782046" /> The condition is generally most severe in users who inject the drug, rather than those who smoke, ingest, or inhale it.<ref name="pmid22782046">{{cite journal |author=Hussain F, Frare RW, Py Berrios KL |title=Drug abuse identification and pain management in dental patients: a case study and literature review |journal=Gen. Dent. |volume=60 |issue=4 |pages=334–345 |year=2012 |pmid=22782046 |doi= |url=}}</ref>  According to the [[American Dental Association]], meth mouth "is probably caused by a combination of drug-induced psychological and physiological changes resulting in [[xerostomia]] (dry mouth), extended periods of poor [[oral hygiene]], frequent consumption of high-calorie, carbonated beverages and [[bruxism]] (teeth grinding and clenching)".<ref name="pmid22782046" /><ref name="ADA">{{cite web|url=http://www.ada.org/prof/resources/topics/methmouth.asp |title=Methamphetamine Use (Meth Mouth)|accessdate=December 2006 |publisher=American Dental Association |archiveurl =http://web.archive.org/web/20080601035323/http://www.ada.org/prof/resources/topics/methmouth.asp |archivedate = June 2008}}</ref> Many researchers suggest that methamphetamine-induced tooth decay is due to users' lifestyles, as dry mouth is also a side effect of other stimulants, which are not known to cause serious tooth decay. They suggest that the side effect has been exaggerated and stylized to deter potential users and stereotype current users.<ref name="pmid22089317">{{cite journal |author=Hart CL, Marvin CB, Silver R, Smith EE |title=Is cognitive functioning impaired in methamphetamine users? A critical review |journal=Neuropsychopharmacology |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=586–608 |date=February 2012  |pmid=22089317 |pmc=3260986 |doi=10.1038/npp.2011.276 |url=}}</ref>


=== Psychological ===
The psychological effects of methamphetamine can include [[euphoria]], [[dysphoria]], changes in [[libido]], [[alertness]], apprehension, [[concentration]], decreased sense of fatigue, [[insomnia]] or [[wakefulness]], [[self-confidence]], sociability, irritability, restlessness, [[grandiosity]] and [[Fixation (psychology)|repetitive and obsessive]] behaviors.<ref name="Desoxyn">{{cite web| title=Desoxyn Prescribing Information| url=http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2013/005378s028lbl.pdf|date=December 2013 |work=United States Food and Drug Administration| accessdate=6 January 2014}}</ref><ref name="Westfall">{{cite book | editor = Brunton LL, Chabner BA, Knollmann BC | title = Goodman & Gilman's Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics | year = 2010 | publisher = McGraw-Hill | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-07-162442-8 | author = Westfall DP, Westfall TC | section = Miscellaneous Sympathomimetic Agonists | sectionurl = http://www.accessmedicine.com/content.aspx?aID=16661601 | edition = 12th }}</ref><ref name="Merck_Manual_Amphetamines">{{cite web | url = http://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/special_subjects/drug_use_and_dependence/amphetamines.html | author = O'Connor PG | title = Amphetamines | work = Merck Manual for Health Care Professionals | publisher = Merck |date=February 2012| accessdate = 8 May 2012 }}</ref> Methamphetamine use also has a high association with [[anxiety]], [[Major depressive disorder|depression]], [[Stimulant psychosis#substituted amphetamines|methamphetamine psychosis]], [[suicide]], and violent behaviors.<ref name="Darke-2008">{{cite journal | author = Darke S, Kaye S, McKetin R, Duflou J | title = Major physical and psychological harms of methamphetamine use | journal = Drug Alcohol Rev. | volume = 27 | issue = 3 | pages = 253–262 |date=May 2008 | pmid = 18368606 | doi = 10.1080/09595230801923702 }}</ref> Methamphetamine also has a very high [[addiction]] risk.<ref name="Desoxyn" />


=== Dependence, addiction, and withdrawal ===
<!--Mechanism of Action-->
{{See also|ΔFosB}}{{Psychostimulant addiction|Colorcode=yes|align=right}}
[[Drug tolerance|Tolerance]] is expected to develop with regular methamphetamine use and, when abused, this tolerance develops rapidly.<ref>{{cite web| last=O'Connor| first=Patrick| title=Amphetamines: Drug Use and Abuse| url=http://www.merckmanuals.com/home/special_subjects/drug_use_and_abuse/amphetamines.html| work=Merck Manual Home Health Handbook| publisher=Merck| accessdate=26 September 2013}}</ref><ref name="Cochrane Abuse">{{cite journal |author=Pérez-Mañá C, Castells X, Torrens M, Capellà D, Farre M |title=Efficacy of psychostimulant drugs for amphetamine abuse or dependence |journal=Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. |volume=9 |pages=CD009695 |year=2013 |pmid=23996457 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD009695.pub2 |editor1-last=Pérez-Mañá |editor1-first=Clara }}</ref>


The evidence on effective treatments for amphetamine and methamphetamine dependence and abuse is limited.<ref name="Cochrane Addiction">{{cite journal |author=Srisurapanont M, Jarusuraisin N, Kittirattanapaiboon P |title=Treatment for amphetamine dependence and abuse |journal=Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. |volume= |issue=4 |pages=CD003022 |year=2001 |pmid=11687171 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD003022 |quote=Although there are a variety of amphetamines and amphetamine derivatives, the word "amphetamines" in this review stands for amphetamine, dextroamphetamine and methamphetamine only. |editor1-last=Srisurapanont |editor1-first=Manit}}</ref> In light of this, [[fluoxetine]]{{#tag:ref|During short-term treatment, fluoxetine may decrease drug craving.<ref name="Cochrane Addiction" />| group = "note" }} and [[imipramine]]{{#tag:ref|During "medium-term treatment," imipramine may extend the duration of adherence to addiction treatment.<ref name="Cochrane Addiction" />| group = "note" }} appear to have some limited benefits in treating abuse and addiction, "no treatment has been demonstrated to be effective for the treatment of [methamphetamine] dependence and abuse".<ref name="Cochrane Addiction" />
|mechAction=


In highly dependent amphetamine and methamphetamine abusers, "when chronic heavy users abruptly discontinue [methamphetamine] use, many report a time-limited withdrawal syndrome that occurs within 24&nbsp;hours of their last dose".<ref name="Cochrane Withdrawal">{{cite journal | author = Shoptaw SJ, Kao U, Heinzerling K, Ling W | title = Treatment for amphetamine withdrawal | journal = Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. | volume = | issue = 2 | pages = CD003021 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19370579 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD003021.pub2 | editor = Shoptaw SJ |quote = <br>The prevalence of this withdrawal syndrome is extremely common (Cantwell 1998; Gossop 1982) with 87.6% of 647 individuals with amphetamine dependence reporting six or more signs of amphetamine withdrawal listed in the DSM when the drug is not available (Schuckit 1999)&nbsp;... Withdrawal symptoms typically present within 24&nbsp;hours of the last use of amphetamine, with a withdrawal syndrome involving two general phases that can last 3 weeks or more. The first phase of this syndrome is the initial "crash" that resolves within about a week (Gossop 1982;McGregor 2005)}}</ref> Withdrawal symptoms in chronic, high-dose users are frequent, occurring in up to 87.6% of cases, and persist for three to four weeks with a marked "crash" phase occurring during the first week.<ref name="Cochrane Withdrawal" />  Methamphetamine withdrawal symptoms can include anxiety, [[Craving (withdrawal)|drug craving]], [[Dysphoria|dysphoric mood]], [[Fatigue (medical)|fatigue]], [[hyperphagia|increased appetite]], [[Psychomotor agitation|increased movement]] or [[psychomotor retardation|decreased movement]], [[anhedonia|lack of motivation]], [[insomnia|sleeplessness]] or [[hypersomnia|sleepiness]], and [[Lucid dream|vivid or lucid dreams]].<ref name="Cochrane Withdrawal" /> Withdrawal symptoms are associated with the degree of dependence (i.e., the extent of abuse).<ref name="Cochrane Withdrawal" /> The mental depression associated with methamphetamine withdrawal lasts longer and is more severe than that of [[cocaine]] withdrawal.<ref name="pmid17990840">{{cite journal|author=Winslow BT, Voorhees KI, Pehl KA |title=Methamphetamine abuse|journal=American Family Physician |volume=76 |issue=8 |pages=1169–1174 |year=2007 |pmid=17990840 |doi=}}</ref>
*Methamphetamine is a sympathomimetic amine with CNS stimulant activity. Peripheral actions include elevation of systolic and diastolic blood pressures and weak bronchodilator and respiratory stimulant action. Drugs of this class used in obesity are commonly known as "anorectics" or "anorexigenics". It has not been established, however, that the action of such drugs in treating obesity is primarily one of appetite suppression. Other central nervous system actions, or metabolic effects, may be involved, for example.
Adult obese subjects instructed in dietary management and treated with "anorectic" drugs, lose more weight on the average than those treated with placebo and diet, as determined in relatively short-term clinical trials.
*The magnitude of increased weight loss of drug-treated patients over placebo-treated patients is only a fraction of a pound a week. The rate of weight loss is greatest in the first weeks of therapy for both drug and placebo subjects and tends to decrease in succeeding weeks. The origins of the increased weight loss due to the various possible drug effects are not established. The amount of weight loss associated with the use of an "anorectic" drug varies from trial to trial, and the increased weight loss appears to be related in part to variables other than the drug prescribed, such as the physician-investigator, the population treated, and the diet prescribed. Studies do not permit conclusions as to the relative importance of the drug and non-drug factors on weight loss.


Current models of addiction from chronic drug use involve alterations in [[gene expression]] in certain parts of the brain.<ref name="Nestler, Hyman, and Malenka 2">{{cite journal |author=Hyman SE, Malenka RC, Nestler EJ |title=Neural mechanisms of addiction: the role of reward-related learning and memory |journal=Annu. Rev. Neurosci. |volume=29 |issue= |pages=565–598 |year=2006 |pmid=16776597 |doi=10.1146/annurev.neuro.29.051605.113009 |url=}}</ref><ref name="Nestler" />  The most important [[transcription factor]]s that produce these alterations are [[ΔFosB]], cyclic adenosine monophosphate ([[cyclic adenosine monophosphate|cAMP]]) response element binding protein ([[cAMP response element binding protein|CREB]]), and nuclear factor kappa B ([[nuclear factor kappa B|NFκB]]).<ref name="Nestler" /> ΔFosB is the most significant, since its overexpression in the [[nucleus accumbens]] is necessary and sufficient for many of the neural adaptations seen in drug addiction;<ref name="Nestler" /> it has been implicated in addictions to [[alcoholism|alcohol]], [[cannabinoid]]s, [[cocaine]], [[nicotine]], [[phencyclidine]], and [[substituted amphetamines]].<ref name="Nestler, Hyman, and Malenka 2" /><ref name="Nestler" /><ref name="Alcoholism ΔFosB">{{cite web | title=Alcoholism – Homo sapiens (human) | url=http://www.genome.jp/kegg-bin/show_pathway?hsa05034+2354 | work=KEGG Pathway | accessdate=10 April 2014 | author=Kanehisa Laboratories | date=2 August 2013}}</ref>  [[ΔJunD]] is the transcription factor which directly opposes ΔFosB.<ref name="Nestler" /> Increases in nucleus accumbens ΔJunD expression can reduce or, with a large increase, even block most of the neural alterations seen in chronic drug abuse (i.e., the alterations mediated by ΔFosB).<ref name="Nestler" /> ΔFosB also plays an important role in regulating behavioral responses to natural rewards, such as palatable food, sex, and exercise.<ref name="Nestler" /><ref name="ΔFosB reward">{{cite journal | author = Blum K, Werner T, Carnes S, Carnes P, Bowirrat A, Giordano J, Oscar-Berman M, Gold M | title = Sex, drugs, and rock 'n' roll: hypothesizing common mesolimbic activation as a function of reward gene polymorphisms | journal = J. Psychoactive Drugs | volume = 44 | issue = 1 | pages = 38–55 | year = 2012 | pmid = 22641964 | pmc = 4040958 | doi = 10.1080/02791072.2012.662112| quote = It has been found that deltaFosB gene in the NAc is critical for reinforcing effects of sexual reward. Pitchers and colleagues (2010) reported that sexual experience was shown to cause DeltaFosB accumulation in several limbic brain regions including the NAc, medial pre-frontal cortex, VTA, caudate, and putamen, but not the medial preoptic nucleus.&nbsp;...these findings support a critical role for DeltaFosB expression in the NAc in the reinforcing effects of sexual behavior and sexual experience-induced facilitation of sexual performance.&nbsp;... both drug addiction and sexual addiction represent pathological forms of neuroplasticity along with the emergence of aberrant behaviors involving a cascade of neurochemical changes mainly in the brain's rewarding circuitry.}}</ref> Since natural rewards, like drugs of abuse, induce ΔFosB, chronic acquisition of these rewards can result in a similar pathological addictive state.<ref name="Nestler" /><ref name="ΔFosB reward" /> Consequently, ΔFosB is the key transcription factor involved in methamphetamine addiction, especially methamphetamine-induced [[sex addiction]]s.<ref name="Nestler">{{cite journal | author = Robison AJ, Nestler EJ | title = Transcriptional and epigenetic mechanisms of addiction | journal = Nat. Rev. Neurosci. | volume = 12 | issue = 11 | pages = 623–637 |date=November 2011  | pmid = 21989194 | pmc = 3272277 | doi = 10.1038/nrn3111 | quote = ΔFosB has been linked directly to several addiction-related behaviors&nbsp;... Importantly, genetic or viral overexpression of ΔJunD, a dominant negative mutant of JunD which antagonizes ΔFosB- and other AP-1-mediated transcriptional activity, in the NAc or OFC blocks these key effects of drug exposure14,22–24. This indicates that ΔFosB is both necessary and sufficient for many of the changes wrought in the brain by chronic drug exposure. ΔFosB is also induced in D1-type NAc MSNs by chronic consumption of several natural rewards, including sucrose, high fat food, sex, wheel running, where it promotes that consumption14,26–30. This implicates ΔFosB in the regulation of natural rewards under normal conditions and perhaps during pathological addictive-like states. }}</ref><ref name="ΔFosB reward" /><ref name="Amph and sex addiction"><!--Supplemental primary source-->{{cite journal | author = Pitchers KK, Vialou V, Nestler EJ, Laviolette SR, Lehman MN, Coolen LM | title = Natural and drug rewards act on common neural plasticity mechanisms with ΔFosB as a key mediator | journal = J. Neurosci. | volume = 33 | issue = 8 | pages = 3434–3442 |date=February 2013  | pmid = 23426671 | pmc = 3865508 | doi = 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4881-12.2013 | quote = Together, these findings demonstrate that drugs of abuse and natural reward behaviors act on common molecular and cellular mechanisms of plasticity that control vulnerability to drug addiction, and that this increased vulnerability is mediated by ΔFosB and its downstream transcriptional targets.}}</ref>  ΔFosB inhibitors (drugs that oppose its action) may be an effective treatment for addiction and addictive disorders.<ref name="Malenka_2009_04">{{cite book | author = Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE | editor = Sydor A, Brown RY | title = Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience | year = 2009 | publisher = McGraw-Hill Medical | location = New York | isbn = 9780071481274 | pages = 384–385 | edition = 2nd | chapter = Chapter 15: Reinforcement and addictive disorders }}</ref>
*The natural history of obesity is measured in years, whereas the studies cited are restricted to a few weeks duration; thus, the total impact of drug-induced weight loss over that of diet alone must be considered clinically limited.
*The mechanism of action involved in producing the beneficial behavioral changes seen in hyperkinetic children receiving methamphetamine is unknown.


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<!--Structure-->


=== Neurotoxicity{{anchor|i}} ===
|structure=


Unlike [[amphetamine]], methamphetamine is directly [[neurotoxic]] to dopamine neurons.<ref name = "Malenka">{{cite book | author = Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE | editor = Sydor A, Brown RY | title = Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience | year = 2009 | publisher = McGraw-Hill Medical | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-07-148127-4 | page = 370 | edition = 2nd | chapter = 15 | quote = Unlike cocaine and amphetamine, methamphetamine is directly toxic to midbrain dopamine neurons.}}</ref>  Moreover, methamphetamine abuse is associated with an increased risk of [[Parkinson's disease]] due to excessive pre-synaptic dopamine [[autoxidation]], a mechanism of neurotoxicity.<ref name="Cruickshank-2009">{{cite journal | author = Cruickshank CC, Dyer KR | title = A review of the clinical pharmacology of methamphetamine | journal = Addiction | volume = 104 | issue = 7 | pages = 1085–1099 |date=July 2009 | pmid = 19426289 | doi = 10.1111/j.1360-0443.2009.02564.x }}</ref><ref name="Thrash-">{{cite journal | author = Thrash B, Thiruchelvan K, Ahuja M, Suppiramaniam V, Dhanasekaran M | title = Methamphetamine-induced neurotoxicity: the road to Parkinson's disease | journal = Pharmacol Rep | volume = 61 | issue = 6 | pages = 966–977 | year = 2009 | pmid = 20081231 | doi = 10.1016/s1734-1140(09)70158-6| url = http://www.if-pan.krakow.pl/pjp/pdf/2009/6_966.pdf | format = PDF }}</ref><ref name="Autoxidation1">{{cite journal | author = Sulzer D, Zecca L | title = Intraneuronal dopamine-quinone synthesis: a review | journal = Neurotox. Res. | volume = 1 | issue = 3 | pages = 181–195 |date=February 2000 | pmid = 12835101 | doi = 10.1007/BF03033289 }}</ref><ref name="Autoxidation2">{{cite journal | author = Miyazaki I, Asanuma M | title = Dopaminergic neuron-specific oxidative stress caused by dopamine itself | journal = Acta Med. Okayama | volume = 62 | issue = 3 | pages = 141–150 |date=June 2008 | pmid = 18596830 | doi = }}</ref> Similar to the neurotoxic effects on the dopamine system, methamphetamine can also result in neurotoxicity to [[serotonin]] neurons.<ref name="pmid19328213">{{cite journal | author = Krasnova IN, Cadet JL | title = Methamphetamine toxicity and messengers of death | journal = Brain Res. Rev. | volume = 60 | issue = 2 | pages = 379–407 |date=May 2009 | pmid = 19328213 | pmc = 2731235 | doi = 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2009.03.002 |quote=Neuroimaging studies have revealed that METH can indeed cause neurodegenerative changes in the brains of human addicts (Aron and Paulus, 2007; Chang et al., 2007). These abnormalities include persistent decreases in the levels of dopamine transporters (DAT) in the orbitofrontal cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, and the caudate-putamen (McCann et al., 1998, 2008; Sekine et al., 2003; Volkow et al., 2001a, 2001c). The density of serotonin transporters (5-HTT) is also decreased in the midbrain, caudate, putamen, hypothalamus, thalamus, the orbitofrontal, temporal, and cingulate cortices of METH-dependent individuals (Sekine et al., 2006)&nbsp;...<br>Neuropsychological studies have detected deficits in attention, working memory, and decision-making in chronic METH addicts&nbsp;...<br> There is compelling evidence that the negative neuropsychiatric consequences of METH abuse are due, at least in part, to drug-induced neuropathological changes in the brains of these METH-exposed individuals&nbsp;...<br> Structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies in METH addicts have revealed substantial morphological changes in their brains. These include loss of gray matter in the cingulate, limbic and paralimbic cortices, significant shrinkage of hippocampi, and hypertrophy of white matter (Thompson et al., 2004). In addition, the brains of METH abusers show evidence of hyperintensities in white matter (Bae et al., 2006; Ernst et al., 2000), decreases in the neuronal marker, N-acetylaspartate (Ernst et al., 2000; Sung et al., 2007), reductions in a marker of metabolic integrity, creatine (Sekine et al., 2002) and increases in a marker of glial activation, myoinositol (Chang et al., 2002; Ernst et al., 2000; Sung et al., 2007; Yen et al., 1994). Elevated choline levels, which are indicative of increased cellular membrane synthesis and turnover are also evident in the frontal gray matter of METH abusers (Ernst et al., 2000; Salo et al., 2007; Taylor et al., 2007).}}</ref> It has been demonstrated that a high core temperature is correlated with an increase in the neurotoxic effects of methamphetamine.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Yuan J, Hatzidimitriou G, Suthar P, Mueller M, McCann U, Ricaurte G |title=Relationship between temperature, dopaminergic neurotoxicity, and plasma drug concentrations in methamphetamine-treated squirrel monkeys |journal=The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics|volume=316 |issue=3 |pages=1210–1218 |date=March 2006 |pmid=16293712|doi=10.1124/jpet.105.096503}}</ref> As a result of methamphetamine-induced [[neurotoxicity]] to [[dopamine]] [[neurons]], chronic use may also lead to [[post-acute-withdrawal syndrome|Post-acute-withdrawals]] which persist beyond the withdrawal period for months, and even up to a year.<ref name="Cruickshank-2009" />
* Methamphetamine hydrochloride tablets, USP chemically known as (S)-N, α -dimethylbenzeneethanamine hydrochloride, is a member of the amphetamine group of sympathomimetic amines. It has the following structural formula: [[File:{{PAGENAME}}01.png|thumb|none|600px|This image is provided by the National Library of Medicine.]]


=== Sexually transmitted infection ===
*Methamphetamine hydrochloride tablets contain 5 mg of methamphetamine hydrochloride, USP for oral administration.


Methamphetamine use was found to be related to higher frequencies of unprotected sexual intercourse in both [[HIV/AIDS|HIV-positive]] and unknown casual partners, an association more pronounced in HIV-positive participants.<ref name="STD" /> These findings suggest that methamphetamine use and engagement in unprotected anal intercourse are co-occurring risk behaviors, behaviors that potentially heighten the risk of HIV transmission among gay and bisexual men.<ref name="STD">{{cite journal|author= Halkitis PN, Pandey Mukherjee P, Palamar JJ| title=Longitudinal Modeling of Methamphetamine Use and Sexual Risk Behaviors in Gay and Bisexual Men| journal=AIDS and Behavior| volume=13| issue=4| pages=783–791| year=2008| pmid=18661225|doi=10.1007/s10461-008-9432-y}}</ref> Methamphetamine use allows users of both sexes to engage in prolonged sexual activity, which may cause genital sores and abrasions as well as [[priapism]] in men.<ref name="Desoxyn" /><ref name="Patrick Moore">{{cite web|author=Patrick Moore|url=http://www.villagevoice.com/2005-06-14/people/we-are-not-ok/|title=We Are Not OK|publisher=VillageVoice |date=June 2005 |accessdate=January 2011}}</ref> Methamphetamine may also cause sores and abrasions in the mouth via [[bruxism]], increasing the risk of sexually transmitted infection.<ref name="Desoxyn" /><ref name="Patrick Moore"/>


Besides the sexual transmission of HIV, it may also be transmitted between users who [[needle sharing|share a common needle]].<ref name="unsw" /> The level of needle sharing among methamphetamine users is similar to that among other drug injection users.<ref name="unsw">{{cite web| url=http://www.med.unsw.edu.au/NDARCWeb.nsf/resources/NDLERF_Methamphetamine/$file/NDLERF+USE+AND+HEALTH.pdf| archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080816134234/http://www.med.unsw.edu.au/NDARCWeb.nsf/resources/NDLERF_Methamphetamine/$file/NDLERF+USE+AND+HEALTH.pdf|archivedate=August 2008| format=PDF| title=Methamphetamine Use and Health &#124; UNSW: The University of New South Wales&nbsp;– Faculty of Medicine |accessdate=January 2011}}</ref>
<!--Pharmacodynamics-->


== Overdose ==
|PD=


A methamphetamine overdose may result in a wide range of symptoms.<ref name="Schep"/><ref name="Desoxyn" /> A moderate overdose of methamphetamine may induce symptoms such as: [[Cardiac dysrhythmia|abnormal heart rhythm]], confusion, [[dysuria|difficult and/or painful urination]], high or low blood pressure, [[hyperthermia|high body temperature]], [[hyperreflexia|over-active and/or over-responsive reflexes]], [[myalgia|muscle aches]], severe [[Psychomotor agitation|agitation]], [[tachypnea|rapid breathing]], [[tremor]], [[urinary hesitancy]], and [[urinary retention|an inability to pass urine]].<ref name="Schep"/><ref name="Westfall" />  An extremely large overdose may produce symptoms such as [[adrenergic storm]], [[methamphetamine psychosis]], [[anuria|substantially reduced or nil urine output]], [[cardiogenic shock]], [[cerebral hemorrhage|brain bleed]], [[circulatory collapse]], [[hyperpyrexia|dangerously high body temperature]], [[pulmonary hypertension]], [[kidney failure]], [[rhabdomyolysis]], [[serotonin syndrome]], and a form of [[stereotypy#Associated terms|stereotypy]] ("tweaking").{{#tag:ref|<ref name="Schep"/><ref name="Desoxyn" /><ref name="Westfall" /><ref name="Merck_Manual_Amphetamines" /><ref name="Albertson_2011">{{cite book| editor = Olson KR, Anderson IB, Benowitz NL, Blanc PD, Kearney TE, Kim-Katz SY, Wu AHB | title = Poisoning & Drug Overdose | author = Albertson TE| year = 2011 | publisher = McGraw-Hill Medical | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-07-166833-0 | chapter = Amphetamines | pages = 77–79 | edition = 6th }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = Amphetamine Poisoning | url = http://emergency.unboundmedicine.com/emergency/ub/view/5-Minute_Emergency_Consult/307063/all/Amphetamine_Poisoning | work = Emergency Central | publisher = Unbound Medicine | date = 11 February 2011| accessdate = 11 June 2013 | author = Oskie SM, Rhee JW }}</ref><ref name="pmid17874986">{{cite journal | author = Isbister GK, Buckley NA, Whyte IM | title = Serotonin toxicity: a practical approach to diagnosis and treatment | journal = Med. J. Aust. | volume = 187 | issue = 6 | pages = 361–365 |date=September 2007 | pmid = 17874986 | doi = | url = https://www.mja.com.au/system/files/issues/187_06_170907/isb10375_fm.pdf }}</ref>| group = "Refnote" }}  A methamphetamine overdose will likely also result in mild [[brain damage]] due to [[dopaminergic]] and [[serotonergic]] neurotoxicity.<ref name="Malenka" /><ref name="pmid19328213" /> Death from methamphetamine poisoning is typically preceded by convulsions and [[coma]].<ref name="Desoxyn" />
There is limited information regarding <i>Pharmacodynamics</i> of {{PAGENAME}} in the drug label.


=== Emergency treatment ===
<!--Pharmacokinetics-->


The USFDA states{{#tag:ref|They suggest consulting with a Certified Poison Control Center on treatment for up-to-date information, advice, and guidance.<ref name="Desoxyn" />| group = "note" }} that acute methamphetamine intoxication is largely managed by treating the symptoms and includes may initially include administration of [[activated charcoal]] and [[sedation]].<ref name="Schep"/> There is not enough evidence on [[hemodialysis]] or [[peritoneal dialysis]] in cases of methamphetamine intoxication to determine their usefulness.<ref name="Desoxyn" />  [[Forced acid diuresis]] (e.g., with [[vitamin C]]) will increase methamphetamine excretion but is not recommended as it may increase the risk of aggravating acidosis, or cause seizures or rhabdomyolysis.<ref name="Schep"/> Hypertension presents a risk for [[intracranial hemorrhage]] and, if severe, is typically treated with intravenous [[phentolamine]] or [[nitroprusside]].<ref name="Schep"/>  Blood pressure often drops gradually following sufficient sedation with a [[benzodiazepine]] and providing a calming environment.<ref name="Schep"/> [[Chlorpromazine]] may be useful in decreasing the stimulant and CNS effects of a methamphetamine overdose.<ref name="Desoxyn" /> The use of a nonselective [[beta blocker]] may be required to control increased heart rate.<ref name="Schep"/>
|PK=
*In humans, methamphetamine is rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract. The primary site of metabolism is in the liver by aromatic hydroxylation, N-dealkylation and deamination. At least seven metabolites have been identified in the urine. The biological half-life has been reported in the range of 4 to 5 hours. Excretion occurs primarily in the urine and is dependent on urine pH. Alkaline urine will significantly increase the drug half-life. Approximately 62% of an oral dose is eliminated in the urine within the first 24 hours with about one-third as intact drug and the remainder as metabolites.
<!--Nonclinical Toxicology-->


=== Psychosis ===
|nonClinToxic=
{{Main section|Stimulant psychosis|Substituted amphetamines}}


Abuse of methamphetamine can result in a stimulant psychosis which may present with a variety of symptoms (e.g. [[paranoia]], [[hallucination]]s, [[delirium]], [[delusion]]s).<ref name="Schep"/><ref name="Cochrane" />  A [[Cochrane Collaboration]] review on treatment for amphetamine, dextroamphetamine, and methamphetamine abuse-induced psychosis states that about&nbsp;5–15% of users fail to recover completely.<ref name="Cochrane">{{cite journal | editor = Shoptaw SJ, Ali R | author = Shoptaw SJ, Kao U, Ling W | title = Treatment for amphetamine psychosis | journal = Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. | volume = | issue = 1 | pages = CD003026 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19160215 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD003026.pub3 | quote=A minority of individuals who use amphetamines develop full-blown psychosis requiring care at emergency departments or psychiatric hospitals. In such cases, symptoms of amphetamine psychosis commonly include paranoid and persecutory delusions as well as auditory and visual hallucinations in the presence of extreme agitation. More common (about 18%) is for frequent amphetamine users to report psychotic symptoms that are sub-clinical and that do not require high-intensity intervention&nbsp;...<br>About&nbsp;5–15% of the users who develop an amphetamine psychosis fail to recover completely (Hofmann 1983)&nbsp;...<br>Findings from one trial indicate use of antipsychotic medications effectively resolves symptoms of acute amphetamine psychosis.}}</ref><ref name="Hofmann">{{cite book | author = Hofmann FG | title = A Handbook on Drug and Alcohol Abuse: The Biomedical Aspects | publisher = Oxford University Press | isbn =  978-0-19-503057-0 | location = New York | year = 1983 | page = 329 | edition = 2nd }}</ref>  The same review asserts that, based upon at least one trial, [[antipsychotic]] medications effectively resolve the symptoms of acute amphetamine psychosis.<ref name="Cochrane" /> [[Stimulant psychosis#Substituted amphetamines|Methamphetamine psychosis]] may also develop occasionally as a treatment-emergent side effect.<ref name="Berman-2009">{{cite journal | author = Berman SM, Kuczenski R, McCracken JT, London ED | title = Potential adverse effects of amphetamine treatment on brain and behavior: a review | journal = Mol. Psychiatry | volume = 14 | issue = 2 | pages = 123–142 |date=February 2009 | pmid = 18698321 | pmc = 2670101 | doi = 10.1038/mp.2008.90 }}</ref>
=====Carcinogenesis, Mutagenesis, Impairment of Fertility=====
*Data are not available on long-term potential for carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, or impairment of fertility.
<!--Clinical Studies-->


== Interactions ==
|clinicalStudies=


Methamphetamine is metabolized by the liver enzyme [[CYP2D6]], so CYP2D6 inhibitors (e.g., [[selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor]]s (SSRIs)) will prolong the [[elimination half-life]] of methamphetamine.<ref name="DrugBank Enzymes">{{cite encyclopedia | title=Methamphetamine | section-url=http://www.drugbank.ca/drugs/DB01577#enzymes | work=DrugBank | publisher= University of Alberta | accessdate=31 December 2013  | date=8 February 2013 | section=Enzymes }}</ref> Methamphetamine also interacts with [[monoamine oxidase inhibitors]] (MAOIs), since both MAOIs and methamphetamine increase plasma catecholamines; therefore, concurrent use of both is dangerous.<ref name="Desoxyn" />  Methamphetamine may decrease the effects of [[sedative]]s and [[depressant]]s and increase the effects of [[antidepressant]]s and other [[stimulant]]s as well.<ref name="Desoxyn" />  Methamphetamine may counteract the effects of [[antihypertensives]] and [[antipsychotic]]s due to its effects on the cardiovascular system and cognition respectively.<ref name="Desoxyn" />  The [[pH]] of gastrointestinal content and urine affects the absorption and excretion of methamphetamine.<ref name="Desoxyn" />  Specifically, acidic substances will reduce the absorption of methamphetamine and increase urinary excretion, while alkaline substances do the opposite.<ref name="Desoxyn" />  Due to the effect pH has on absorption, [[proton pump inhibitor]]s, which reduce [[gastric acid]], are known to interact with methamphetamine.<ref name="Desoxyn" />
There is limited information regarding <i>Clinical Studies</i> of {{PAGENAME}} in the drug label.


== Pharmacology ==
<!--How Supplied-->
[[File:Amphetamine mechanism of action.svg|300px|right|thumb|This illustration depicts the normal operation of the [[dopaminergic]] terminal to the left, and the dopaminergic terminal in presence of methamphetamine to the right. Methamphetamine reverses the action of the dopamine transporter (DAT) by activating [[TAAR1]] (not shown).  TAAR1 activation also causes some of the dopamine transporters to move into the presynaptic neuron and cease transport (not shown). At VMAT2 (labeled VMAT), methamphetamine causes dopamine efflux (release).|alt=An image of methamphetamine pharmacodynamics]]


Amphetamines, in general, act as monoamine releasing agents and reuptake inhibitors.  They inhibit [[VMAT-2]], preventing packaging of [[monoamines]] into vesicles.  As these monoamine neurotransmitters remain in the cytoplasm at an ever-climbing level, the gradient for their transporters becomes progressively less favorable, which, in combination with [[dopamine transporter]] [[phosphorylation]] caused by amphetamines, causes the transporters to work in reverse, resulting in monoamine release.  There is also some evidence that amphetamines act as [[monoamine oxidase inhibitors]], amplifying this effect by preventing degradation of these neurotransmitters.{{mcn|date=March 2015}}
|howSupplied=


=== Pharmacodynamics{{anchor|ii}} ===
*Methamphetamine Hydrochloride Tablets, USP are available containing 5 mg of methamphetamine hydrochloride, USP.
<!--DO NOT MOVE THIS ANCHOR-->
*The 5 mg tablets are white, round, unscored tablets debossed with 115 on one side of the tablet and blank on the other side. They are available as follows:
Like amphetamine, methamphetamine has been identified as a potent [[full agonist]] of [[TAAR1|trace amine-associated receptor 1]] (TAAR1), a [[G protein-coupled receptor]] (GPCR) that regulates brain [[catecholamine]] systems.<ref name="Miller" /><ref name="Meth Targets" /> Activation of TAAR1, via [[adenylyl cyclase]], increases [[cyclic adenosine monophosphate]] (cAMP) production and either completely inhibits or reverses the transport direction of the [[dopamine transporter]] (DAT), [[norepinephrine transporter]] (NET), and [[serotonin transporter]] (SERT).<ref name="Miller" /><ref name="pmid11459929">{{cite journal | author = Borowsky B, Adham N, Jones KA, Raddatz R, Artymyshyn R, Ogozalek KL, Durkin MM, Lakhlani PP, Bonini JA, Pathirana S, Boyle N, Pu X, Kouranova E, Lichtblau H, Ochoa FY, Branchek TA, Gerald C | title = Trace amines: identification of a family of mammalian G protein-coupled receptors | journal = Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. | volume = 98 | issue = 16 | pages = 8966–8971 |date=July 2001 | pmid = 11459929 | pmc = 55357 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.151105198}}</ref> When methamphetamine binds to TAAR1, it triggers transporter [[phosphorylation]] via [[protein kinase A]] (PKA) and [[protein kinase C]] (PKC) signaling, ultimately resulting in the [[endocytosis|internalization]] or reverse function of [[monoamine transporter]]s.<ref name="Miller" /><ref name="Xie and Miller 2009">{{cite journal | author = Xie Z, Miller GM | title = A receptor mechanism for methamphetamine action in dopamine transporter regulation in brain | journal = J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. | volume = 330 | issue = 1 | pages = 316–325 |date=July 2009 | pmid = 19364908 | pmc = 2700171 | doi = 10.1124/jpet.109.153775 }}</ref> Other [[Membrane transport protein|transporters]] that methamphetamine is known to inhibit are [[vesicular monoamine transporter 1]] (VMAT1), [[vesicular monoamine transporter 2]] (VMAT2), [[SLC22A3]], and [[SLC22A5]].<ref name="Meth Transporters">{{cite encyclopedia | title=Methamphetamine | section-url=http://www.drugbank.ca/drugs/DB01577#transporters | work=DrugBank | publisher= University of Alberta | accessdate=31 December 2013 | date=8 February 2013 | section=Transporters}}</ref> SLC22A3 is an extraneuronal monoamine transporter that is present in [[astrocyte]]s and SLC22A5 is a high-affinity [[carnitine]] transporter.<ref name="Meth Targets" /><ref name="pmid13677912">{{cite journal | author = Inazu M, Takeda H, Matsumiya T | title = [The role of glial monoamine transporters in the central nervous system] | language = Japanese | journal = Nihon Shinkei Seishin Yakurigaku Zasshi | volume = 23 | issue = 4 | pages = 171–178 |date=August 2003 | pmid = 13677912 | doi = }}</ref> When methamphetamine interacts with VMAT2, it induces a release of monoamines from the [[synaptic vesicle]]s (vesicles that stores monoamines) into the [[cytosol]] (intracellular fluid) of the [[presynaptic neuron]].<ref name="E Weihe" />


Methamphetamine is also an [[agonist]] of the [[alpha-2 adrenergic receptor]]s and [[sigma receptor]]s, and inhibits [[vesicular monoamine transporter 1]] (VMAT1), [[monoamine oxidase B]] (MAO-B), and [[monoamine oxidase A]] (MAO-A).<ref name="Meth Targets" /><ref name="Sigma">{{cite journal | author = Kaushal N, Matsumoto RR | title = Role of sigma receptors in methamphetamine-induced neurotoxicity | journal = Curr Neuropharmacol | volume = 9 | issue = 1 | pages = 54–57 |date=March 2011  | pmid = 21886562 | pmc = 3137201 | doi = 10.2174/157015911795016930 | url = }}</ref><ref name="SigmaB">{{cite journal | author = Rodvelt KR, Miller DK | title = Could sigma receptor ligands be a treatment for methamphetamine addiction? | journal = Curr Drug Abuse Rev | volume = 3 | issue = 3 | pages = 156–162 |date=September 2010  | pmid = 21054260 | doi = 10.2174/1874473711003030156| url = }}</ref> Methamphetamine is known to inhibit the CYP2D6 liver enzyme as well.<ref name="DrugBank Enzymes" />  Dextromethamphetamine is a stronger [[psychostimulant]], but levomethamphetamine has a longer half-life and is [[central nervous system|CNS]]-active with weaker effects (approximately one-tenth) on striatal dopamine and shorter perceived effects among addicts.<ref name="Melega">{{cite journal | author = Melega WP, Cho AK, Schmitz D, Kuczenski R, Segal DS | title = l-methamphetamine pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics for assessment of in vivo deprenyl-derived l-methamphetamine | journal = J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. | volume = 288 | issue = 2 | pages = 752–758 |date=February 1999 | pmid = 9918585 | doi = }}</ref><ref name="Kuczenski">{{cite journal | author = Kuczenski R, Segal DS, Cho AK, Melega W | title = Hippocampus norepinephrine, caudate dopamine and serotonin, and behavioral responses to the stereoisomers of amphetamine and methamphetamine | journal = J. Neurosci. | volume = 15 | issue = 2 | pages = 1308–1317 |date=February 1995 | pmid = 7869099 | doi = }}</ref><ref name="Mendelson">{{cite journal | author = Mendelson J, Uemura N, Harris D, Nath RP, Fernandez E, Jacob P, Everhart ET, Jones RT | title = Human pharmacology of the methamphetamine stereoisomers | journal = Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. | volume = 80 | issue = 4 | pages = 403–420 |date=October 2006 | pmid = 17015058 | doi = 10.1016/j.clpt.2006.06.013 }}</ref>  At high doses, both enantiomers of methamphetamine can induce [[stereotypy]] and [[methamphetamine psychosis]],<ref name="Kuczenski"/> but levomethamphetamine is less desired by recreational drug users because of its weaker pharmacodynamic profile.<ref name="Mendelson"/>
*NDC 0378-8115-01
bottles of 100 tablets


Although all the mechanisms are not fully understood, methamphetamine is a known neurotoxin in both lab animals and humans.<ref name="Malenka" /><ref name="pmid19328213" /><ref>{{cite journal|author=Itzhak Y, Martin JL, Ali SF |title=Methamphetamine-induced dopaminergic neurotoxicity in mice: long-lasting sensitization to the locomotor stimulation and desensitization to the rewarding effects of methamphetamine |journal=Progress in Neuro-psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry |volume=26 |issue=6|pages=1177–1183 |date=October 2002 |pmid=12452543 |doi=10.1016/S0278-5846(02)00257-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Davidson C, Gow AJ, Lee TH, Ellinwood EH |title=Methamphetamine neurotoxicity: necrotic and apoptotic mechanisms and relevance to human abuse and treatment |journal=Brain Research. Brain Research Reviews |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=1–22 |date=August 2001 |pmid=11516769 |doi=10.1016/S0165-0173(01)00054-6}}</ref> Beyond neurotoxicity, [[magnetic resonance imaging]] studies on human methamphetamine addicts and abusers indicate adverse [[neuroplastic]] changes, such as significant abnormalities in various brain structures.<ref name="pmid19328213" /> In particular, methamphetamine appears to cause [[white matter]] [[hyperintensity]] and [[hypertrophy]], marked shrinkage of [[hippocampi]], and a reduction in [[gray matter]] in the [[cingulate cortex]], [[limbic cortex]], and [[paralimbic cortex]].<ref name="pmid19328213" /> Moreover, there are adverse changes in various metabolic markers of metabolic integrity or synthesis in methamphetamine abusers, such as reductions in [[N-acetylaspartate|''N''-acetylaspartate]] and [[creatine]] as well as elevated [[choline]] and [[myoinositol]] levels.<ref name="pmid19328213" />
*Store at 20º to 25ºC (68º to 77ºF). [See USP Controlled Room Temperature.]


==== Comparison to amphetamine pharmacodynamics{{anchor|iii}} ====
*Protect from light.
<!--DO NOT MOVE THIS ANCHOR-->
Both amphetamine and methamphetamine are potent [[central nervous system|CNS]] stimulants with a few [[biomolecular target]]s and affected transporters in common; however, there are important [[pharmacodynamics|pharmacodynamic]] differences between the two compounds.{{#tag:ref|<ref name="Meth Targets">{{cite encyclopedia | title=Methamphetamine | section-url=http://www.drugbank.ca/drugs/DB01577#targets | work=DrugBank | publisher= University of Alberta | accessdate=31 December 2013 | date=8 February 2013 | section=Targets }}</ref><ref name="Meth Transporters" /><ref name="Amph DB Transporters">{{cite web | title=Amphetamine | section-url=http://www.drugbank.ca/drugs/DB00182#transporters | work=DrugBank | publisher= University of Alberta | accessdate=13 October 2013 | date=8 February 2013 | section=Transporters }}</ref><ref name="Amph DB Targets">{{cite encyclopedia | title=Amphetamine | section-url=http://www.drugbank.ca/drugs/DB00182#targets | work=DrugBank | publisher= University of Alberta | accessdate=13 October 2013 | date=8 February 2013 | section=Targets }}</ref><ref name="Amph PC Targets">{{cite encyclopedia | title=Amphetamine | url=http://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/summary/summary.cgi?cid=3007 | work=PubChem Compound | publisher = National Center for Biotechnology Information | accessdate=13 October 2013 }}</ref>| group = "Refnote" }}  Both compounds are potent [[trace amine-associated receptor 1]] (TAAR1) agonists (causing non-competitive inhibition of [[Dopamine transporter|DAT]], [[Norepinephrine transporter|NET]], and [[Serotonin transporter|SERT]]) and inhibitors of [[VMAT2]], [[SLC22A3]], and [[SLC22A5]].{{#tag:ref|<ref name="Miller">{{cite journal | author = Miller GM | title = The emerging role of trace amine-associated receptor 1 in the functional regulation of monoamine transporters and dopaminergic activity | journal = J. Neurochem. | volume = 116 | issue = 2 | pages = 164–176 |date=January 2011 | pmid = 21073468 | pmc = 3005101 | doi = 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2010.07109.x }}</ref><ref name="Meth Transporters" /><ref name="E Weihe">{{cite journal | author = Eiden LE, Weihe E | title = VMAT2: a dynamic regulator of brain monoaminergic neuronal function interacting with drugs of abuse | journal = Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. | volume = 1216 | issue = | pages = 86–98 |date=January 2011 | pmid = 21272013 | doi = 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05906.x }}</ref><ref name="Amph DB Transporters" />| group = "Refnote" }} However, methamphetamine appears to bind at a different site at VMAT2 than amphetamine.<ref name="VMAT2 amph vs meth">{{cite journal |author=Sulzer D, Sonders MS, Poulsen NW, Galli A |title=Mechanisms of neurotransmitter release by amphetamines: a review |journal=Prog. Neurobiol. |volume=75 |issue=6 |pages=406–433 |date=April 2005 |pmid=15955613 |doi=10.1016/j.pneurobio.2005.04.003 |url=|quote=They also demonstrated competition for binding between METH and reserpine, suggesting they might bind to the same site on VMAT. George Uhl's laboratory similarly reported that AMPH displaced the VMAT2 blocker tetrabenazine (Gonzalez et al., 1994). It should be noted that tetrabenazine and reserpine are thought to bind to different sites on VMAT (Schuldiner et al., 1993a)}}</ref> Methamphetamine also inhibits [[VMAT1]], has [[agonist]] activity at all [[alpha-2 adrenergic receptor]] and [[sigma receptor]] subtypes, and is directly toxic to dopamine neurons in humans, whereas there is no evidence of acute amphetamine toxicity in humans.<ref name="Malenka" /><ref name="pmid19328213" /><ref name="Meth Targets" /><ref name="Sigma" /> Sigma receptor activity is known to potentiate the stimulant and neurotoxic effects of methamphetamine.<ref name="Sigma" /><ref name="SigmaB" /><!--Amphetamine is an agonist of [[cocaine and amphetamine regulated transcript]] (CART), a psychostimulant neuropeptide with neurogenerative and neuroprotective effects ''in vitro'';<ref name="Amph DB Targets" /><ref name="Amph PC Targets" /> in contrast, the limited available research on the association between methamphetamine and CART in humans suggests methamphetamine has no significant effects on the neuropeptide.<ref name="Meth Targets" /><ref name="pmid17105939">{{cite journal |author=Morio A, Ujike H, Nomura A, Tanaka Y, Morita Y, Otani K, Kishimoto M, Harano M, Inada T, Komiyama T, Yamada M, Sekine Y, Iwata N, Iyo M, Sora I, Ozaki N, Kuroda S |title=No association between CART (cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript) gene and methamphetamine dependence |journal=Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. |volume=1074 |issue= |pages=411–417 |date=August 2006 |pmid=17105939 |doi=10.1196/annals.1369.041 |url=}}</ref>-->


In contrast to the adverse neuroplastic effects evident in methamphetamine addicts and abusers, long-term use of amphetamine or methylphenidate at therapeutic doses appears to produce beneficial changes in brain function and structure, such as normalization of the [[right caudate nucleus]].<ref name="Neuroplasticity 1">{{cite journal |author=Hart H, Radua J, Nakao T, Mataix-Cols D, Rubia K |title=Meta-analysis of functional magnetic resonance imaging studies of inhibition and attention in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: exploring task-specific, stimulant medication, and age effects |journal=JAMA Psychiatry |volume=70 |issue=2 |pages=185–198 |date=February 2013 |pmid=23247506 |doi=10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.277 |url=}}</ref><ref name="Neuroplasticity 2">{{cite journal |author=Spencer TJ, Brown A, Seidman LJ, Valera EM, Makris N, Lomedico A, Faraone SV, Biederman J |title=Effect of psychostimulants on brain structure and function in ADHD: a qualitative literature review of magnetic resonance imaging-based neuroimaging studies |journal=J. Clin. Psychiatry |volume=74 |issue=9 |pages=902–917 |date=September 2013 |pmid=24107764 |doi=10.4088/JCP.12r08287 |url= |pmc=3801446}}</ref>
*Dispense in a tight, light resistant container as defined in the USP using child-resistant closure.  


=== Pharmacokinetics ===
<!--Patient Counseling Information-->


Following oral administration, methamphetamine is well-absorbed into the bloodstream, with peak plasma methamphetamine concentrations achieved in approximately 3.13–6.3&nbsp;hours post ingestion.<ref name="DB Pharmacology">{{cite encyclopedia | title=Methamphetamine | section-url=http://www.drugbank.ca/drugs/DB01577#pharmacology | work=DrugBank | publisher= University of Alberta | accessdate=31 December 2013  | date=8 February 2013 | section=Pharmacology }}</ref> Methamphetamine is also well absorbed following inhalation and following intranasal administration.<ref name="Schep" /> Due to the high lipophilicity of methamphetamine, it can readily move through the [[blood–brain barrier]] faster than other stimulants, where it is more resistant to degradation by [[monoamine oxidase]].<ref name="Schep"/><ref name="DB Pharmacology" /> The amphetamine metabolite peaks at 10–24&nbsp;hours.<ref name="Schep" /> It is excreted by the kidneys, with the rate of excretion into the urine heavily influenced by urinary pH.<ref name="Desoxyn" /><ref name="DB Pharmacology" /> When taken orally, 30–54% of the dose is excreted in urine as methamphetamine and 10–23% as amphetamine.<ref name="DB Pharmacology" /> Following IV doses, about&nbsp;45% is excreted as methamphetamine and 7% as amphetamine.<ref name="DB Pharmacology" /> The [[half-life]] of methamphetamine is variable with a mean value of between 5 and 12&nbsp;hours.<ref name="Schep">{{cite journal |author=Schep LJ, Slaughter RJ, Beasley DM |title=The clinical toxicology of metamfetamine |journal=Clinical Toxicology (Philadelphia, Pa.) |volume=48 |issue=7 |pages=675–694 |date=August 2010 |pmid=20849327 |doi=10.3109/15563650.2010.516752|issn=1556-3650}}</ref><ref name="DB Pharmacology" />
|fdaPatientInfo=


[[CYP2D6]], [[dopamine β-hydroxylase]], [[flavin-containing monooxygenase]], [[butyrate-CoA ligase]], and [[glycine N-acyltransferase]] are the enzymes known to metabolize methamphetamine or its metabolites in humans.<ref name="DBH ref" /><ref name="FMO" /><ref name="Benzoic1">{{cite encyclopedia | title=butyrate-CoA ligase| url=http://www.brenda-enzymes.org/php/result_flat.php4?ecno=6.2.1.2&Suchword=&organism%5B%5D=Homo+sapiens&show_tm=0| work=BRENDA| publisher=Technische Universität Braunschweig.| accessdate=7 May 2014| section=Substrate/Product}}</ref><ref name="Benzoic2">{{cite encyclopedia | title=glycine N-acyltransferase| url=http://www.brenda-enzymes.info/php/result_flat.php4?ecno=2.3.1.13&Suchword=&organism%5B%5D=Homo+sapiens&show_tm=0| work=BRENDA| publisher=Technische Universität Braunschweig.| accessdate=7 May 2014| section=Substrate/Product}}</ref><ref name="DrugBank Enzymes">{{cite encyclopedia | title=Amphetamine | section-url=http://www.drugbank.ca/drugs/DB00182#enzymes | work=DrugBank | publisher= University of Alberta | accessdate=30 September 2013 | date=8 February 2013 | section=Enzymes }}</ref> The primary metabolites are amphetamine and [[pholedrine|4-hydroxymethamphetamine]]; other minor metabolites include: {{nowrap|[[4-hydroxyamphetamine]]}}, {{nowrap|[[4-hydroxynorephedrine]]}}, {{nowrap|[[4-hydroxyphenylacetone]]}}, [[benzoic acid]], [[hippuric acid]], [[norephedrine]], and [[phenylacetone]], the metabolites of amphetamine.<ref name="FDA Pharmacokinetics" /><ref name="DB Pharmacology" /><ref name="Pubchem Kinetics">{{cite encyclopedia | title=Amphetamine | url=http://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/summary/summary.cgi?cid=3007 | work=Pubchem Compound | publisher = National Center for Biotechnology Information | accessdate=12 October 2013 }}</ref><ref name="Metabolites">{{cite journal | author = Santagati NA, Ferrara G, Marrazzo A, Ronsisvalle G | title = Simultaneous determination of amphetamine and one of its metabolites by HPLC with electrochemical detection | journal = J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. | volume = 30 | issue = 2 | pages = 247–255 |date=September 2002 | pmid = 12191709 | doi =10.1016/S0731-7085(02)00330-8 }}</ref>  Among these metabolites, the active [[sympathomimetics]] are amphetamine, {{nowrap|4‑hydroxyamphetamine}},<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title=p-Hydroxyamphetamine | section-url=http://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/summary/summary.cgi?cid=3651 | work=PubChem Compound | publisher = National Center for Biotechnology Information | accessdate=15 October 2013 | section=Compound Summary }}</ref> {{nowrap|4‑hydroxynorephedrine}},<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title=p-Hydroxynorephedrine | section-url=http://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/summary/summary.cgi?cid=11099 | work=PubChem Compound | publisher = National Center for Biotechnology Information | accessdate=15 October 2013 | section=Compound Summary }}</ref> {{nowrap|4-hydroxymethamphetamine}},<ref name="DB Pharmacology" /> and norephedrine.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title=Phenylpropanolamine | section-url=http://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/summary/summary.cgi?cid=26934 | work=PubChem Compound | publisher = National Center for Biotechnology Information | accessdate=15 October 2013 | section=Compound Summary }}</ref>
*The patient should be informed that methamphetamine may impair the ability to engage in potentially hazardous activities, such as, operating machinery or driving a motor vehicle.


The main metabolic pathways involve aromatic para-hydroxylation, aliphatic alpha- and beta-hydroxylation, N-oxidation, N-dealkylation, and deamination.<ref name="FDA Pharmacokinetics" /><ref name="DB Pharmacology" /><ref name="Pubchem Kinetics" />  The known metabolic pathways include:<ref name="FDA Pharmacokinetics">{{cite web | title = Adderall XR Prescribing Information | url = http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2013/021303s026lbl.pdf | pages = 12–13 | work = United States Food and Drug Administration |date=December 2013 | accessdate = 30 December 2013 }}</ref><ref name="DB Pharmacology" /><ref name="Metabolites" />{{Methamphetamine pharmacokinetics|caption=The primary metabolites of methamphetamine are amphetamine and 4-hydroxymethamphetamine.<ref name="DB Pharmacology" />}}
*Circulation problems in fingers and toes [Peripheral vasculopathy, including Raynaud's phenomenon]
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==== Detection in biological fluids ====
:*Instruct patients beginning treatment with methamphetamine hydrochloride tablets about the risk of peripheral vasculopathy, including Raynaud's phenomenon, and associated signs and symptoms: fingers or toes may feel numb, cool, painful, and/or may change color from pale, to blue, to red.
:*Instruct patients to report to their physician any new numbness, pain, skin color change, or sensitivity to temperature in fingers or toes.
:*Instruct patients to call their physician immediately with any signs of unexplained wounds appearing on fingers or toes while taking methamphetamine hydrochloride tablets.
:*Further clinical evaluation (e.g., rheumatology referral) may be appropriate for certain patients.
*The patient should be cautioned not to increase dosage, except on advice of the physician.
*Prescribers or other health professionals should inform patients, their families, and their caregivers about the benefits and risks associated with treatment with methamphetamine and should counsel them in its appropriate use. A patient Medication Guide is available for methamphetamine hydrochloride tablets. The prescriber or health professional should instruct patients, their families, and their caregivers to read the Medication Guide and should assist them in understanding its contents. Patients should be given the opportunity to discuss the contents of the Medication Guide and to obtain answers to any questions they may have.
<!--Precautions with Alcohol-->


Methamphetamine and amphetamine are often measured in urine or blood as part of a [[drug test]] for sports, employment, poisoning diagnostics, and forensics.<ref name="Ergogenics">{{cite journal | author = Liddle DG, Connor DJ | title = Nutritional supplements and ergogenic AIDS | journal = Prim. Care | volume = 40 | issue = 2 | pages = 487–505 |date=June 2013 | pmid = 23668655 | doi = 10.1016/j.pop.2013.02.009}}</ref><ref name="pmid9700558">{{cite journal | author = Kraemer T, Maurer HH | title = Determination of amphetamine, methamphetamine and amphetamine-derived designer drugs or medicaments in blood and urine | journal = J. Chromatogr. B Biomed. Sci. Appl. | volume = 713 | issue = 1 | pages = 163–187 |date=August 1998 | pmid = 9700558 | doi = 10.1016/S0378-4347(97)00515-X }}</ref><ref name="pmid17468860">{{cite journal | author = Kraemer T, Paul LD | title = Bioanalytical procedures for determination of drugs of abuse in blood | journal = Anal. Bioanal. Chem. | volume = 388 | issue = 7 | pages = 1415–1435 |date=August 2007 | pmid = 17468860 | doi = 10.1007/s00216-007-1271-6 }}</ref><ref name="pmid8075776">{{cite journal | author = Goldberger BA, Cone EJ | title = Confirmatory tests for drugs in the workplace by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry | journal = J. Chromatogr. A | volume = 674 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 73–86 |date=July 1994 | pmid = 8075776 | doi = 10.1016/0021-9673(94)85218-9 }}</ref> Chiral techniques may be employed to help distinguish the source the drug to determine whether it was obtained illicitly or legally via prescription or prodrug.<ref name="pmid15516295" /> Chiral separation is needed to assess the possible contribution of levomethamphetamine (e.g., Vicks Vapoinhaler) toward a positive test result.<ref name="pmid15516295">{{cite journal | author = Paul BD, Jemionek J, Lesser D, Jacobs A, Searles DA | title = Enantiomeric separation and quantitation of (+/-)-amphetamine, (+/-)-methamphetamine, (+/-)-MDA, (+/-)-MDMA, and (+/-)-MDEA in urine specimens by GC-EI-MS after derivatization with (R)-(−)- or (S)-(+)-alpha-methoxy-alpha-(trifluoromethy)phenylacetyl chloride (MTPA) | journal = J Anal Toxicol | volume = 28 | issue = 6 | pages = 449–455 |date=September 2004 | pmid = 15516295 | doi =10.1093/jat/28.6.449 }}</ref><ref name="pmid14871155">{{cite journal | author = de la Torre R, Farré M, Navarro M, Pacifici R, Zuccaro P, Pichini S | title = Clinical pharmacokinetics of amfetamine and related substances: monitoring in conventional and non-conventional matrices | journal = Clin Pharmacokinet | volume = 43 | issue = 3 | pages = 157–185 | year = 2004 | pmid = 14871155 | doi = 10.2165/00003088-200443030-00002  }}</ref><ref>{{cite book  | author = Baselt RC  | title = Disposition of toxic drugs and chemicals in man | year = 2011 | publisher = Biomedical Publications | location = Seal Beach, Ca. | isbn = 0-9626523-8-5 | pages = 1027–1030 }}</ref> Dietary zinc supplements can mask the presence of methamphetamine and other drugs in urine.<ref name="pmid21740689">{{cite journal | author = Venkatratnam A, Lents NH | title = Zinc reduces the detection of cocaine, methamphetamine, and THC by ELISA urine testing | journal = J. Anal. Toxicol | volume = 35 | issue = 6 | pages = 333–340 |date=July 2011 | pmid = 21740689 | doi =10.1093/anatox/35.6.333 }}</ref>
|alcohol=


== Physical and chemical properties ==
* Alcohol-{{PAGENAME}} interaction has not been established. Talk to your doctor about the effects of taking alcohol with this medication.
[[File:Crystal Meth.jpg|thumb|Pure shards of methamphetamine hydrochloride, also known as crystal meth|alt=Methamphetamine hydrochloride]]
Methamphetamine is a [[chirality (chemistry)|chiral]] compound with two enantiomers, dextromethamphetamine and levomethamphetamine. At room temperature, the [[free base]] of methamphetamine is a clear and colorless liquid with an odor characteristic of [[geranium]] leaves.<ref name="Pubchem2" /> It is soluble in [[diethyl ether]] and [[ethanol]] as well as [[miscible]] with [[chloroform]].<ref name="Pubchem2" /> In contrast, the methampetamine hydrochloride salt is odorless with a bitter taste.<ref name="Pubchem2" /> It has a melting point between {{convert|170|to|175|C|F}} and, at room temperature, occurs as white crystals or a white [[Crystallinity|crystalline]] powder.<ref name="Pubchem2" /> The hydrochloride salt is also freely soluble in ethanol and water.<ref name="Pubchem2" />


=== Synthesis ===
<!--Brand Names-->
{{Details3|[[History and culture of substituted amphetamines#Illegal synthesis|Illegal synthesis of substituted amphetamines]]|illicit amphetamine synthesis}}
[[Racemic]] methamphetamine may be prepared starting from [[phenylacetone]] by either the [[Leuckart reaction|Leuckart]]<ref name=Crossley_1944>{{cite journal | author = Crossley FS, Moore ML |title = Studies on the Leuckart reaction | journal = The Journal of Organic Chemistry |date=November 1944 | volume = 9 | issue = 6 | pages = 529–536 | doi = 10.1021/jo01188a006 }}</ref> or [[reductive amination]] methods.<ref name="pmid19637924">{{cite journal | author = Kunalan V, Nic Daéid N, Kerr WJ, Buchanan HA, McPherson AR | title = Characterization of route specific impurities found in methamphetamine synthesized by the Leuckart and reductive amination methods | journal = Anal. Chem. | volume = 81 | issue = 17 | pages = 7342–7348 |date=September 2009 | pmid = 19637924 | pmc = 3662403 | doi = 10.1021/ac9005588 }}</ref> In the Leuckart reaction, one equivalent of phenylacetone is reacted with two equivalents of {{nowrap|[[N-methylformamide|''N''-methylformamide]]}} to produce the formyl [[amide]] of methamphetamine plus carbon dioxide and [[methylamine]] as side products.<ref name="pmid19637924"/>  In this reaction, an [[iminium]] cation is formed as an intermediate which is [[Redox|reduced]] by the second equivalent of {{nowrap|''N''-methylformamide}}.<ref name="pmid19637924"/> The intermediate formyl amide is then [[hydrolyzed]] under acidic aqueous conditions to yield methamphetamine as the final product.<ref name="pmid19637924"/>  Alternatively, phenylacetone can be reacted with methylamine under reducing conditions to yield methamphetamine.<ref name="pmid19637924"/>


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===Degradation===
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Bleach exposure time and concentration are correlated with destruction of methamphetamine.<ref>{{cite web|author=Nakayama, MT|title=Chemical Interaction of Bleach and Methamphetamine: A Study of Degradation and Transformation Effects|url=http://gradworks.umi.com/14/93/1493688.html|website=gradworks|publisher=UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, DAVIS|accessdate=17 October 2014}}</ref>  Methamphetamine in soils has shown to be a persistent pollutant.<ref name="pmid21777940">{{cite journal | author = Pal R, Megharaj M, Kirkbride KP, Heinrich T, Naidu R | title = Biotic and abiotic degradation of illicit drugs, their precursor, and by-products in soil | journal = Chemosphere | volume = 85 | issue = 6 | pages = 1002–9 |date=October 2011  | pmid = 21777940 | doi = 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2011.06.102 | url = }}</ref>  Methamphetamine is largely degraded within 30 days in a study of bioreactors under exposure to light in [[wastewater]].<ref name="pmid23886544">{{cite journal | author = Bagnall J, Malia L, Lubben A, Kasprzyk-Hordern B | title = Stereoselective biodegradation of amphetamine and methamphetamine in river microcosms | journal = Water Res. | volume = 47 | issue = 15 | pages = 5708–18 |date=October 2013  | pmid = 23886544 | doi = 10.1016/j.watres.2013.06.057 | url = }}</ref>


== History, society, and culture ==
* A® — B®<ref name="www.ismp.org">{{Cite web  | last = | first = | title = http://www.ismp.org | url = http://www.ismp.org | publisher = | date = }}</ref>
{{Main|History and culture of substituted amphetamines}}
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| caption1  = A Pervitin tablet container, the methamphetamine brand used by German soldiers during World War II


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Amphetamine, discovered before methamphetamine, was first synthesized in 1887 in Germany by Romanian chemist [[Lazăr Edeleanu]] who named it ''phenylisopropylamine''.<ref>{{cite book | author = Rassool GH | title=Alcohol and Drug Misuse: A Handbook for Students and Health Professionals | year=2009 | publisher=Routledge | location=London | isbn=978-0-203-87117-1 | page=113}}</ref><ref name="Vermont">{{cite web | url=http://healthvermont.gov/adap/meth/brief_history.aspx | title=Historical overview of methamphetamine | work=Vermont Department of Health | publisher=Government of Vermont | accessdate=29 January 2012}}</ref> Shortly after, methamphetamine was synthesized from [[ephedrine]] in 1893 by Japanese [[chemist]] [[Nagai Nagayoshi]].<ref name="Grobler et al 2011">{{cite journal |doi=10.5402/2011/974768 |title=The pH Levels of Different Methamphetamine Drug Samples on the Street Market in Cape Town |year=2011 |last1=Grobler |first1=Sias R. |last2=Chikte |first2=Usuf |last3=Westraat |first3=Jaco |journal=ISRN Dentistry |volume=2011 |pages=1–4 |pmid=21991491 |pmc=3189445}}</ref>  Three decades later, in 1919, methamphetamine hydrochloride was synthesized by pharmacologist [[Akira Ogata]] via [[redox|reduction]] of ephedrine using red [[phosphorus]] and [[iodine]].<ref name="history">{{cite web|url=http://healthvermont.gov/adap/meth/brief_history.aspx |title=Historical overview of methamphetamine|publisher= Vermont Department of Health |accessdate=January 2012}}</ref>


During World War II, ''Pervitin'' (methamphetamine) developed by Berlin based [[Temmler]] pharmaceutical company was used extensively by all branches of the [[Wehrmacht|German armed forces]] ([[Luftwaffe]] pilots, in particular) for its performance enhancing stimulant effects and to induce extended [[wakefulness]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Nazi Death Machine: Hitler's Drugged Soldiers|url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/the-nazi-death-machine-hitler-s-drugged-soldiers-a-354606.html|publisher=Der Spiegel, 6 May 2005}}</ref><ref name="pmid22849208">{{cite journal | author = Defalque RJ, Wright AJ | title = Methamphetamine for Hitler's Germany: 1937 to 1945 | journal = Bull. Anesth. Hist. | volume = 29 | issue = 2 | pages = 21–24, 32 |date=April 2011 | pmid = 22849208 | doi =  }}</ref> ''Pervitin'' became colloquially known among the German troops as "[[Tank]]-Chocolates" (''Panzerschokolade''), "[[Stuka]]-Tablets" (''Stuka-Tabletten'') and "[[Hermann Göring|Herman-Göring]]-Pills" (''Hermann-Göring-Pillen'').
<!--Pill Image-->


[[Obetrol]], patented by Obetrol Pharmaceuticals in the 1950s and indicated for treatment of [[obesity]], was one of the first brands of pharmaceutical methamphetamine products.<ref name="Real_Obetrol_Ad">{{cite book| first=Nicolas | last=Rasmussen |authorlink= | title=On Speed: The Many Lives of Amphetamine | date=March 2008 | publisher=New York University Press | edition=1|isbn= 0-8147-7601-9 | page =148}}</ref> Due to the psychological and stimulant effects of methamphetamine, Obetrol became a popular diet pill in America in the 1950s and 1960s.<ref name="Real_Obetrol_Ad" /> Eventually, as the addictive properties of the drug became known, governments began to strictly regulate the production and distribution of methamphetamine.<ref name="Vermont" />  For example, during the early 1970s in the United States, methamphetamine became a [[Schedule II (US)|schedule II controlled substance]] under the [[Controlled Substances Act]].<ref>{{cite web | title=Controlled Substances Act | url=http://www.fda.gov/regulatoryinformation/legislation/ucm148726.htm | work=United States Food and Drug Administration | date=11 June 2009 | accessdate=4 November 2013}}</ref> Currently, methamphetamine is sold under the trade name ''Desoxyn'', [[trademark]]ed by the Danish pharmaceutical company [[Lundbeck]].<ref name="Desoxyn (Lundbeck)">{{cite web|url=http://www.lundbeck.com/us/products/cns-products/desoxyn|title=Desoxyn| publisher=Lundbeck: Desoxyn| accessdate=December 2012}}</ref> As of January 2013, the Desoxyn trademark had been sold to Italian pharmaceutical company [[Recordati]].<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.recordatirarediseases.com/products/us-product/desoxyn%C2%AE-cii-methamphetamine-hydrochloride-tablets-usp| title=Recordati: Desoxyn| publisher=Recordati SP| accessdate=May 2013}}</ref>
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=== Present legal status ===
<!--Label Display Image-->
{{Main|Legal status of methamphetamine}}
The production, distribution, sale, and possession of methamphetamine is restricted or illegal in many [[jurisdiction]]s.<ref>{{cite book | author = United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime | title = Preventing Amphetamine-type Stimulant Use Among Young People: A Policy and Programming Guide  | publisher = United Nations | location = New York | year = 2007 | isbn = 978-92-1-148223-2 | url = http://www.unodc.org/pdf/youthnet/ATS.pdf | accessdate = 11 November 2013}}</ref><ref name="incb">{{cite web | title = List of psychotropic substances under international control | work = International Narcotics Control Board | publisher = United Nations | url = http://www.incb.org/pdf/e/list/green.pdf | accessdate = 19 November 2005 | archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20051205125434/http://www.incb.org/pdf/e/list/green.pdf | archivedate= 5 December 2005 |date=August 2003}}</ref> Methamphetamine has been placed in schedule II of the [[United Nations]] [[Convention on Psychotropic Substances]] treaty.<ref name=incb />


== See also ==
{{LabelImage
* [[Amphetamine]]
|fileName={{PAGENAME}}11.png|This image is provided by the National Library of Medicine.
* ''[[Breaking Bad]]'' – A television series involving the criminal production of methamphetamine
}}
* [[Faces of Meth]]
* [[Levomethamphetamine]]
* [[Methamphetamine in the United States]]
* [[Montana Meth Project]]
* [[Phenelzine]]
* [[Rolling meth lab]]
* [[Ya ba]]


== References ==
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{{TAAR ligands}}
<!--Category-->
{{Phenethylamines}}


[[Category:Methamphetamine| ]]
[[Category:Amphetamine]]
[[Category:Anorectics]]
[[Category:Cardiac stimulants]]
[[Category:Euphoriants]]
[[Category:Japanese inventions]]
[[Category:Management of obesity]]
[[Category:Norepinephrine-dopamine releasing agents]]
[[Category:Phenethylamines]]
[[Category:Sigma agonists]]
[[Category:Stimulants]]
[[Category:Substituted amphetamines]]
[[Category:Sympathomimetics]]
[[Category:TAAR1 agonists]]
[[Category:Treatment and management of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder]]
[[Category:VMAT inhibitors]]
[[Category:Drug]]
[[Category:Drug]]

Revision as of 13:44, 13 April 2015

Methamphetamine
Black Box Warning
Adult Indications & Dosage
Pediatric Indications & Dosage
Contraindications
Warnings & Precautions
Adverse Reactions
Drug Interactions
Use in Specific Populations
Administration & Monitoring
Overdosage
Pharmacology
Clinical Studies
How Supplied
Images
Patient Counseling Information
Precautions with Alcohol
Brand Names
Look-Alike Names

Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1];

Disclaimer

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Black Box Warning

Warning
See full prescribing information for complete Boxed Warning.
  • METHAMPHETAMINE HAS A HIGH POTENTIAL FOR ABUSE. IT SHOULD THUS BE TRIED ONLY IN WEIGHT REDUCTION PROGRAMS FOR PATIENTS IN WHOM ALTERNATIVE THERAPY HAS BEEN INEFFECTIVE. ADMINISTRATION OF METHAMPHETAMINE FOR PROLONGED PERIODS OF TIME IN OBESITY MAY LEAD TO DRUG DEPENDENCE AND MUST BE AVOIDED. PARTICULAR ATTENTION SHOULD BE PAID TO THE POSSIBILITY OF SUBJECTS OBTAINING METHAMPHETAMINE FOR NON-THERAPEUTIC USE OR DISTRIBUTION TO OTHERS, AND THE DRUG SHOULD BE PRESCRIBED OR DISPENSED SPARINGLY. MISUSE OF METHAMPHETAMINE MAY CAUSE SUDDEN DEATH AND SERIOUS CARDIOVASCULAR ADVERSE EVENTS.

Overview

Methamphetamine is a that is FDA approved for the {{{indicationType}}} of . There is a Black Box Warning for this drug as shown here. Common adverse reactions include .

Adult Indications and Dosage

FDA-Labeled Indications and Dosage (Adult)

Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity
  • Methamphetamine hydrochloride tablets are indicated as an integral part of a total treatment program which typically includes other remedial measures (psychological, educational, social) for a stabilizing effect in children over 6 years of age with a behavioral syndrome characterized by the following group of developmentally inappropriate symptoms: moderate to severe distractibility, short attention span, hyperactivity, emotional lability, and impulsivity. The diagnosis of this syndrome should not be made with finality when these symptoms are only of comparatively recent origin. Nonlocalizing (soft) neurological signs, learning disability, and abnormal EEG may or may not be present, and a diagnosis of central nervous system dysfunction may or may not be warranted.
  • The limited usefulness of methamphetamine hydrochloride tablets should be weighed against possible risks inherent in use of the drug, such as those described below.
Dosing information
  • Methamphetamine hydrochloride tablets are given orally.
  • Methamphetamine should be administered at the lowest effective dosage, and dosage should be individually adjusted. Late evening medication should be avoided because of the resulting insomnia.
  • For treatment of children 6 years or older with a behavioral syndrome characterized by moderate to severe distractibility, short attention span, hyperactivity, emotional lability and impulsivity: an initial dose of 5 mg methamphetamine hydrochloride tablets once or twice a day is recommended. Daily dosage may be raised in increments of 5 mg at weekly intervals until an optimum clinical response is achieved. The usual effective dose is 20 to 25 mg daily. The total daily dose may be given in two divided doses daily.
  • Where possible, drug administration should be interrupted occasionally to determine if there is a recurrence of behavioral symptoms sufficient to require continued therapy.
Exogenous Obesity
  • As a short-term (i.e., a few weeks) adjunct in a regimen of weight reduction based on caloric restriction, for patients in whom obesity is refractory to alternative therapy, e.g., repeated diets, group programs, and other drugs.
Dosing Information
  • One 5 mg tablet should be taken one-half hour before each meal. Treatment should not exceed a few weeks in duration. Methamphetamine is not recommended for use as an anorectic agent in children under 12 years of age.

Off-Label Use and Dosage (Adult)

Non–Guideline-Supported Use

There is limited information regarding Off-Label Non–Guideline-Supported Use of Methamphetamine in adult patients.

Pediatric Indications and Dosage

FDA-Labeled Indications and Dosage (Pediatric)

There is limited information regarding FDA-Labeled Use of Methamphetamine in pediatric patients.

Off-Label Use and Dosage (Pediatric)

Guideline-Supported Use

There is limited information regarding Off-Label Guideline-Supported Use of Methamphetamine in pediatric patients.

Non–Guideline-Supported Use

There is limited information regarding Off-Label Non–Guideline-Supported Use of Methamphetamine in pediatric patients.

Contraindications

  • Methamphetamine hydrochloride tablets are contraindicated during or within 14 days following the administration of monoamine oxidase inhibitors; hypertensive crisis may result. It is also contraindicated in patients with glaucoma, advanced arteriosclerosis, symptomatic cardiovascular disease, moderate to severe hypertension, hyperthyroidism or known hypersensitivity or idiosyncrasy to sympathomimetic amines. Methamphetamine should not be given to patients who are in an agitated state or who have a history of drug abuse.

Warnings

Warning
See full prescribing information for complete Boxed Warning.
  • METHAMPHETAMINE HAS A HIGH POTENTIAL FOR ABUSE. IT SHOULD THUS BE TRIED ONLY IN WEIGHT REDUCTION PROGRAMS FOR PATIENTS IN WHOM ALTERNATIVE THERAPY HAS BEEN INEFFECTIVE. ADMINISTRATION OF METHAMPHETAMINE FOR PROLONGED PERIODS OF TIME IN OBESITY MAY LEAD TO DRUG DEPENDENCE AND MUST BE AVOIDED. PARTICULAR ATTENTION SHOULD BE PAID TO THE POSSIBILITY OF SUBJECTS OBTAINING METHAMPHETAMINE FOR NON-THERAPEUTIC USE OR DISTRIBUTION TO OTHERS, AND THE DRUG SHOULD BE PRESCRIBED OR DISPENSED SPARINGLY. MISUSE OF METHAMPHETAMINE MAY CAUSE SUDDEN DEATH AND SERIOUS CARDIOVASCULAR ADVERSE EVENTS.
  • Tolerance to the anorectic effect usually develops within a few weeks. When this occurs, the recommended dose should not be exceeded in an attempt to increase the effect; rather, the drug should be discontinued

=====Serious Cardiovascular Events

=

======Sudden Death and Preexisting Structural Cardiac Abnormalities or Other Serious Heart Problems======*Children and Adolescents: Sudden death has been reported in association with CNS stimulant treatment at usual doses in children and adolescents with structural cardiac abnormalities or other serious heart problems. Although some serious heart problems alone carry an increased risk of sudden death, stimulant products generally should not be used in children or adolescents with known serious structural cardiac abnormalities, cardiomyopathy, serious heart rhythm abnormalities, or other serious cardiac problems that may place them at increased vulnerability to the sympathomimetic effects of a stimulant drug*Adults: Sudden deaths, stroke, and myocardial infarction have been reported in adults taking stimulant drugs at usual doses for ADHD. Although the role of stimulants in these adult cases is also unknown, adults have a greater likelihood than children of having serious structural cardiac abnormalities, cardiomyopathy, serious heart rhythm abnormalities, coronary artery disease, or other serious cardiac problems. Adults with such abnormalities should also generally not be treated with stimulant drugs.

Hypertension and other Cardiovascular Conditions
  • Stimulant medications cause a modest increase in average blood pressure (about 2 to 4 mmHg) and average heart rate (about 3 to 6 bpm), and individuals may have larger increases. While the mean changes alone would not be expected to have short-term consequences, all patients should be monitored for larger changes in heart rate and blood pressure. Caution is indicated in treating patients whose underlying medical conditions might be compromised by increases in blood pressure or heart rate, e.g., those with pre-existing hypertension, heart failure, recent myocardial infarction, or ventricular arrhythmia.
Assessing Cardiovascular Status in Patients being Treated with Stimulant Medications
  • Children, adolescents, or adults who are being considered for treatment with stimulant medications should have a careful history (including assessment for a family history of sudden death or ventricular arrhythmia) and physical exam to assess for the presence of cardiac disease, and should receive further cardiac evaluation if findings suggest such disease (e.g., electrocardiogram and echocardiogram). Patients who develop symptoms such as exertional chest pain, unexplained syncope, or other symptoms suggestive of cardiac disease during stimulant treatment should undergo a prompt cardiac evaluation.

=====Psychiatric Adverse Events

=

Preexisting Psychosis
  • Administration of stimulants may exacerbate symptoms of behavior disturbance and thought disorder in patients with a preexisting psychotic disorder.
Bipolar Illness
  • Particular care should be taken in using stimulants to treat ADHD in patients with comorbid bipolar disorder because of concern for possible induction of a mixed/manic episode in such patients. Prior to initiating treatment with a stimulant, patients with comorbid depressive symptoms should be adequately screened to determine if they are at risk for bipolar disorder; such screening should include a detailed psychiatric history, including a family history of suicide, bipolar disorder, and depression.
Emergence of New Psychotic or Manic Symptoms
  • Treatment emergent psychotic or manic symptoms, e.g., hallucinations, delusional thinking, or mania in children and adolescents without a prior history of psychotic illness or mania can be caused by stimulants at usual doses. If such symptoms occur, consideration should be given to a possible causal role of the stimulant, and discontinuation of treatment may be appropriate. In a pooled analysis of multiple short-term, placebo-controlled studies, such symptoms occurred in about 0.1% (four patients with events out of 3,482 exposed to methylphenidate or amphetamine for several weeks at usual doses) of stimulant-treated patients compared to 0 in placebo-treated patients.
Aggression
  • Aggressive behavior or hostility is often observed in children and adolescents with ADHD, and has been reported in clinical trials and the postmarketing experience of some medications indicated for the treatment of ADHD. Although there is no systematic evidence that stimulants cause aggressive behavior or hostility, patients beginning treatment for ADHD should be monitored for the appearance of or worsening of aggressive behavior or hostility.

======Long-Term Suppression of Growth

==

  • Careful follow-up of weight and height in children ages 7 to 10 years who were randomized to either methylphenidate or non-medication treatment groups over 14 months, as well as in naturalistic subgroups of newly methylphenidate-treated and non-medication treated children over 36 months (to the ages of 10 to 13 years), suggests that consistently medicated children (i.e., treatment for 7 days per week throughout the year) have a temporary slowing in growth rate (on average, a total of about 2 cm less growth in height and 2.7 kg less growth in weight over 3 years), without evidence of growth rebound during this period of development. Published data are inadequate to determine whether chronic use of amphetamines may cause a similar suppression of growth, however, it is anticipated that they likely have this effect as well. Therefore, growth should be monitored during treatment with stimulants, and patients who are not growing or gaining height or weight as expected may need to have their treatment interrupted.

======Seizures

==

  • There is some clinical evidence that stimulants may lower the convulsive threshold in patients with prior history of seizures, in patients with prior EEG abnormalities in absence of seizures, and, very rarely, in patients without a history of seizures and no prior EEG evidence of seizures. In the presence of seizures, the drug should be discontinued.

======Peripheral Vasculopathy, including Raynaud's phenomenon

==

  • Stimulants, including methamphetamine hydrochloride tablets, used to treat ADHD are associated with peripheral vasculopathy, including Raynaud's phenomenon. Signs and symptoms are usually intermittent and mild; however, very rare sequelae include digital ulceration and/or soft tissue breakdown. Effects of peripheral vasculopathy, including Raynaud's phenomenon, were observed in post-marketing reports at different times and at therapeutic doses in all age groups throughout the course of treatment. Signs and symptoms generally improve after reduction in dose or discontinuation of drug. Careful observation for digital changes is necessary during treatment with ADHD stimulants. Further clinical evaluation (e.g., rheumatology referral) may be appropriate for certain patients.

======Visual Disturbance

==

  • Difficulties with accommodation and blurring of vision have been reported with stimulant treatment.

Precautions

General
  • Methamphetamine hydrochloride tablets should be used with caution in patients with even mild hypertension.
  • Methamphetamine should not be used to combat fatigue or to replace rest in normal persons.
  • Prescribing and dispensing of methamphetamine should be limited to the smallest amount that is feasible at one time in order to minimize the possibility of overdosage.

Adverse Reactions

Clinical Trials Experience

  • The following are adverse reactions in decreasing order of severity within each category that have been reported:
  • Cardiovascular: Elevation of blood pressure, tachycardia and palpitation. Fatal cardiorespiratory arrest has been reported, mostly in the context of abuse/misuse.
  • Central Nervous System: Psychotic episodes have been rarely reported at recommended doses. Dizziness, dysphoria, overstimulation, euphoria, insomnia, tremor, restlessness and headache. Exacerbation of motor and phonic tics and Tourette's syndrome.
  • Gastrointestinal: Diarrhea, constipation, dryness of mouth, unpleasant taste and other gastrointestinal disturbances.
  • Hypersensitivity: Urticaria.
  • Endocrine: Impotence and changes in libido; frequent or prolonged erections.
  • Miscellaneous: Suppression of growth has been reported with the long-term use of stimulants in children

Postmarketing Experience

There is limited information regarding Postmarketing Experience of Methamphetamine in the drug label.

Body as a Whole
Cardiovascular
Digestive
Endocrine
Hematologic and Lymphatic
Metabolic and Nutritional
Musculoskeletal
Neurologic
Respiratory
Skin and Hypersensitivy Reactions
Special Senses
Urogenital
Miscellaneous

Drug Interactions

  • Insulin requirements in diabetes mellitus may be altered in association with the use of methamphetamine and the concomitant dietary regimen.
  • Methamphetamine may decrease the hypotensive effect of guanethidine.
  • Methamphetamine hydrochloride tablets should not be used concurrently with monoamine oxidase inhibitors.*Concurrent administration of tricyclic antidepressants and indirect-acting sympathomimetic amines such as the amphetamines, should be closely supervised and dosage carefully adjusted.
  • Phenothiazines are reported in the literature to antagonize the CNS stimulant action of the amphetamines.
Drug/Laboratory Test Interactions
  • Literature reports suggest that amphetamines may be associated with significant elevation of plasma corticosteroids. This should be considered if determination of plasma corticosteroid levels is desired in a person receiving amphetamines.

Use in Specific Populations

Pregnancy

Pregnancy Category (FDA):

Teratogenic effects

Pregnancy Category C

  • Methamphetamine has been shown to have teratogenic and embryocidal effects in mammals given high multiples of the human dose. There are no adequate and well controlled studies in pregnant women. Methamphetamine hydrochloride tablets should not be used during pregnancy unless the potential benefit justifies the potential risk to the fetus.
Nonteratogenic effects
  • Infants born to mothers dependent on amphetamines have an increased risk of premature delivery and low birth weight. Also, these infants may experience symptoms of withdrawal as demonstrated by dysphoria, including agitation and significant lassitude.


Pregnancy Category (AUS):

  • Australian Drug Evaluation Committee (ADEC) Pregnancy Category

There is no Australian Drug Evaluation Committee (ADEC) guidance on usage of Methamphetamine in women who are pregnant.

Labor and Delivery

There is no FDA guidance on use of Methamphetamine during labor and delivery.

Nursing Mothers

  • Amphetamines are excreted in human milk. Mothers taking amphetamines should be advised to refrain from nursing.

Pediatric Use

  • Safety and effectiveness for use as an anorectic agent in children below the age of 12 years have not been established. Long-term effects of methamphetamine in children have not been established .
  • Drug treatment is not indicated in all cases of the behavioral syndrome characterized by moderate to severe distractibility, short attention span, hyperactivity, emotional lability and impulsivity. It should be considered only in light of the complete history and evaluation of the child. The decision to prescribe methamphetamine hydrochloride tablets should depend on the physician's assessment of the chronicity and severity of the child's symptoms and their appropriateness for his/her age. Prescription should not depend solely on the presence of one or more of the behavioral characteristics.When these symptoms are associated with acute stress reactions, treatment with methamphetamine hydrochloride tablets is usually not indicated.

Clinical experience suggests that in psychotic children, administration of methamphetamine hydrochloride tablets may exacerbate symptoms of behavior disturbance and thought disorder.

  • Amphetamines have been reported to exacerbate motor and phonic tics and Tourette's syndrome. Therefore, clinical evaluation for tics and Tourette's syndrome in children and their families should precede use of stimulant medications.

Geriatic Use

  • Clinical Studies of methamphetamine hydrochloride tablets did not include sufficient numbers of subjects age 65 years and over to determine whether elderly subjects respond differently from younger subjects. Other reported clinical experience has not identified differences in responses between the elderly and younger patients. In general, dose selection for an elderly patient should be cautious, usually starting at the low end of the dosing range, reflecting the greater frequency of decreased hepatic, renal or cardiac function, and of concomitant disease or other drug therapy observed in this population.

Gender

There is no FDA guidance on the use of Methamphetamine with respect to specific gender populations.

Race

There is no FDA guidance on the use of Methamphetamine with respect to specific racial populations.

Renal Impairment

There is no FDA guidance on the use of Methamphetamine in patients with renal impairment.

Hepatic Impairment

There is no FDA guidance on the use of Methamphetamine in patients with hepatic impairment.

Females of Reproductive Potential and Males

There is no FDA guidance on the use of Methamphetamine in women of reproductive potentials and males.

Immunocompromised Patients

There is no FDA guidance one the use of Methamphetamine in patients who are immunocompromised.

Administration and Monitoring

Administration

  • Oral
  • Intravenous

Monitoring

There is limited information regarding Monitoring of Methamphetamine in the drug label.

  • Description

IV Compatibility

There is limited information regarding IV Compatibility of Methamphetamine in the drug label.

Overdosage

  • Manifestations of acute overdosage with methamphetamine include restlessness, tremor, hyperreflexia, rapid respiration, confusion, assaultiveness, hallucinations, panic states, hyperpyrexia, and rhabdomyolysis. Fatigue and depression usually follow the central stimulation. Cardiovascular effects include arrhythmias, hypertension or hypotension, and circulatory collapse. Gastrointestinal symptoms include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal cramps. Fatal poisoning usually terminates in convulsions and coma.
  • Consult with a Certified Poison Control Center regarding treatment for up to date guidance and advice. Management of acute methamphetamine intoxication is largely symptomatic and includes gastric evacuation, administration of activated charcoal, and sedation. Experience with hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis is inadequate to permit recommendations in this regard.
  • Acidification of urine increases methamphetamine excretion, but is believed to increase risk of acute renal failure if myoglobinuria is present. Intravenous phentolamine (Regitine1) has been suggested for possible acute, severe hypertension, if this complicates methamphetamine overdosage. Usually a gradual drop in blood pressure will result when sufficient sedation has been achieved. Chlorpromazine has been reported to be useful in decreasing CNS stimulation and sympathomimetic effects.

There is limited information regarding Chronic Overdose of Methamphetamine in the drug label.

Pharmacology

There is limited information regarding Methamphetamine Pharmacology in the drug label.

Mechanism of Action

  • Methamphetamine is a sympathomimetic amine with CNS stimulant activity. Peripheral actions include elevation of systolic and diastolic blood pressures and weak bronchodilator and respiratory stimulant action. Drugs of this class used in obesity are commonly known as "anorectics" or "anorexigenics". It has not been established, however, that the action of such drugs in treating obesity is primarily one of appetite suppression. Other central nervous system actions, or metabolic effects, may be involved, for example.

Adult obese subjects instructed in dietary management and treated with "anorectic" drugs, lose more weight on the average than those treated with placebo and diet, as determined in relatively short-term clinical trials.

  • The magnitude of increased weight loss of drug-treated patients over placebo-treated patients is only a fraction of a pound a week. The rate of weight loss is greatest in the first weeks of therapy for both drug and placebo subjects and tends to decrease in succeeding weeks. The origins of the increased weight loss due to the various possible drug effects are not established. The amount of weight loss associated with the use of an "anorectic" drug varies from trial to trial, and the increased weight loss appears to be related in part to variables other than the drug prescribed, such as the physician-investigator, the population treated, and the diet prescribed. Studies do not permit conclusions as to the relative importance of the drug and non-drug factors on weight loss.
  • The natural history of obesity is measured in years, whereas the studies cited are restricted to a few weeks duration; thus, the total impact of drug-induced weight loss over that of diet alone must be considered clinically limited.
  • The mechanism of action involved in producing the beneficial behavioral changes seen in hyperkinetic children receiving methamphetamine is unknown.

Structure

  • Methamphetamine hydrochloride tablets, USP chemically known as (S)-N, α -dimethylbenzeneethanamine hydrochloride, is a member of the amphetamine group of sympathomimetic amines. It has the following structural formula:
    This image is provided by the National Library of Medicine.
  • Methamphetamine hydrochloride tablets contain 5 mg of methamphetamine hydrochloride, USP for oral administration.

Pharmacodynamics

There is limited information regarding Pharmacodynamics of Methamphetamine in the drug label.

Pharmacokinetics

  • In humans, methamphetamine is rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract. The primary site of metabolism is in the liver by aromatic hydroxylation, N-dealkylation and deamination. At least seven metabolites have been identified in the urine. The biological half-life has been reported in the range of 4 to 5 hours. Excretion occurs primarily in the urine and is dependent on urine pH. Alkaline urine will significantly increase the drug half-life. Approximately 62% of an oral dose is eliminated in the urine within the first 24 hours with about one-third as intact drug and the remainder as metabolites.

Nonclinical Toxicology

Carcinogenesis, Mutagenesis, Impairment of Fertility
  • Data are not available on long-term potential for carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, or impairment of fertility.

Clinical Studies

There is limited information regarding Clinical Studies of Methamphetamine in the drug label.

How Supplied

  • Methamphetamine Hydrochloride Tablets, USP are available containing 5 mg of methamphetamine hydrochloride, USP.
  • The 5 mg tablets are white, round, unscored tablets debossed with 115 on one side of the tablet and blank on the other side. They are available as follows:
  • NDC 0378-8115-01

bottles of 100 tablets

  • Store at 20º to 25ºC (68º to 77ºF). [See USP Controlled Room Temperature.]
  • Protect from light.
  • Dispense in a tight, light resistant container as defined in the USP using child-resistant closure.

Storage

There is limited information regarding Methamphetamine Storage in the drug label.

Images

Drug Images

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Package and Label Display Panel

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Patient Counseling Information

  • The patient should be informed that methamphetamine may impair the ability to engage in potentially hazardous activities, such as, operating machinery or driving a motor vehicle.
  • Circulation problems in fingers and toes [Peripheral vasculopathy, including Raynaud's phenomenon]
  • Instruct patients beginning treatment with methamphetamine hydrochloride tablets about the risk of peripheral vasculopathy, including Raynaud's phenomenon, and associated signs and symptoms: fingers or toes may feel numb, cool, painful, and/or may change color from pale, to blue, to red.
  • Instruct patients to report to their physician any new numbness, pain, skin color change, or sensitivity to temperature in fingers or toes.
  • Instruct patients to call their physician immediately with any signs of unexplained wounds appearing on fingers or toes while taking methamphetamine hydrochloride tablets.
  • Further clinical evaluation (e.g., rheumatology referral) may be appropriate for certain patients.
  • The patient should be cautioned not to increase dosage, except on advice of the physician.
  • Prescribers or other health professionals should inform patients, their families, and their caregivers about the benefits and risks associated with treatment with methamphetamine and should counsel them in its appropriate use. A patient Medication Guide is available for methamphetamine hydrochloride tablets. The prescriber or health professional should instruct patients, their families, and their caregivers to read the Medication Guide and should assist them in understanding its contents. Patients should be given the opportunity to discuss the contents of the Medication Guide and to obtain answers to any questions they may have.

Precautions with Alcohol

  • Alcohol-Methamphetamine interaction has not been established. Talk to your doctor about the effects of taking alcohol with this medication.

Brand Names

Look-Alike Drug Names

Drug Shortage Status

Price

References

The contents of this FDA label are provided by the National Library of Medicine.

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