Apolipoprotein AI amyloidosis: Difference between revisions

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==Epidemiology and Demographics==
==Epidemiology and Demographics==
===Incidence===
*The [[incidence]] of amyloidosis is approximately 1.2 per 100,000 individuals per year worldwide.<ref name="pmid116772762">{{cite journal |vauthors=Khan MF, Falk RH |title=Amyloidosis |journal=Postgrad Med J |volume=77 |issue=913 |pages=686–93 |date=November 2001 |pmid=11677276 |pmc=1742163 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
*


===Mortality rate===
*The [[mortality rate]] of systemic amyloidosis is approximately 100 per 100,000 deaths in developed countries.<ref name="pmid16409147">{{cite journal |vauthors=Pepys MB |title=Amyloidosis |journal=Annu. Rev. Med. |volume=57 |issue= |pages=223–41 |date=2006 |pmid=16409147 |doi=10.1146/annurev.med.57.121304.131243 |url=}}</ref>


==Risk Factors==
===Age===
There are no established risk factors for [disease name].
*In familial amyloidosis, the [[mean]] age of presentation is:<ref name="pmid214940832">{{cite journal |vauthors=Shin YM |title=Hepatic amyloidosis |journal=Korean J Hepatol |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=80–3 |date=March 2011 |pmid=21494083 |pmc=3304630 |doi=10.3350/kjhep.2011.17.1.80 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid1685359">{{cite journal |vauthors=Holmgren G, Steen L, Ekstedt J, Groth CG, Ericzon BG, Eriksson S, Andersen O, Karlberg I, Nordén G, Nakazato M |title=Biochemical effect of liver transplantation in two Swedish patients with familial amyloidotic polyneuropathy (FAP-met30) |journal=Clin. Genet. |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=242–6 |date=September 1991 |pmid=1685359 |doi=10.1111/j.1399-0004.1991.tb03085.x |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid9356442">{{cite journal |vauthors=Borhani DW, Rogers DP, Engler JA, Brouillette CG |title=Crystal structure of truncated human apolipoprotein A-I suggests a lipid-bound conformation |journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=94 |issue=23 |pages=12291–6 |date=November 1997 |pmid=9356442 |pmc=24911 |doi=10.1073/pnas.94.23.12291 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid8464497">{{cite journal |vauthors=Pepys MB, Hawkins PN, Booth DR, Vigushin DM, Tennent GA, Soutar AK, Totty N, Nguyen O, Blake CC, Terry CJ |title=Human lysozyme gene mutations cause hereditary systemic amyloidosis |journal=Nature |volume=362 |issue=6420 |pages=553–7 |date=April 1993 |pmid=8464497 |doi=10.1038/362553a0 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid4655034">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gudmundsson G, Hallgrímsson J, Jónasson TA, Bjarnason O |title=Hereditary cerebral haemorrhage with amyloidosis |journal=Brain |volume=95 |issue=2 |pages=387–404 |date=1972 |pmid=4655034 |doi=10.1093/brain/95.2.387 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid3707586">{{cite journal |vauthors=Ghiso J, Pons-Estel B, Frangione B |title=Hereditary cerebral amyloid angiopathy: the amyloid fibrils contain a protein which is a variant of cystatin C, an inhibitor of lysosomal cysteine proteases |journal=Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. |volume=136 |issue=2 |pages=548–54 |date=April 1986 |pmid=3707586 |doi=10.1016/0006-291x(86)90475-4 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid8113408">{{cite journal |vauthors=Uemichi T, Liepnieks JJ, Benson MD |title=Hereditary renal amyloidosis with a novel variant fibrinogen |journal=J. Clin. Invest. |volume=93 |issue=2 |pages=731–6 |date=February 1994 |pmid=8113408 |pmc=293912 |doi=10.1172/JCI117027 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid11401442">{{cite journal |vauthors=Benson MD, Liepnieks JJ, Yazaki M, Yamashita T, Hamidi Asl K, Guenther B, Kluve-Beckerman B |title=A new human hereditary amyloidosis: the result of a stop-codon mutation in the apolipoprotein AII gene |journal=Genomics |volume=72 |issue=3 |pages=272–7 |date=March 2001 |pmid=11401442 |doi=10.1006/geno.2000.6499 |url=}}</ref>
**[[Transthyretin|Transthyretin (TTR)]]: After 50 years of age
*** The age of onset in TTR Val30Met variant of the disease in northern Portugal is in the early 30s
** [[Apolipoprotein AI]]: Third decade and older
** [[Transthyretin|Apolipoprotein AII]]: Early adulthood
** [[Fibrinogen A alpha-chain associated amyloidosis|Fibrinogen Aa]]: Fourth to fifth decade
** [[Lysozyme]]: Third to fourth decade
** [[Gelsolin]]: Late adulthood
** [[Cystatin C]]: Third to fourth decade


OR
===Race===
*Hereditary amyloidosis subtypes include a substitution of an [[amino acid]] that is detected in approximately 4% of the african american population.<ref name="pmid11677276">{{cite journal |vauthors=Khan MF, Falk RH |title=Amyloidosis |journal=Postgrad Med J |volume=77 |issue=913 |pages=686–93 |date=November 2001 |pmid=11677276 |pmc=1742163 |doi= |url=}}</ref>


The most potent risk factor in the development of [disease name] is [risk factor 1]. Other risk factors include [risk factor 2], [risk factor 3], and [risk factor 4].
===Gender===
*Men are more commonly affected by amyloidosis than women.<ref name="pmid21494083">{{cite journal |vauthors=Shin YM |title=Hepatic amyloidosis |journal=Korean J Hepatol |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=80–3 |date=March 2011 |pmid=21494083 |pmc=3304630 |doi=10.3350/kjhep.2011.17.1.80 |url=}}</ref>


OR
=== Region ===


Common risk factors in the development of [disease name] include [risk factor 1], [risk factor 2], [risk factor 3], and [risk factor 4].
* Transthyretin-related hereditary amyloidosis is endemic in Portuguese locations Póvoa de Varzim and Vila do Conde (Caxinas), with more than 1000 affected people, coming from about 500 families, where 70% of the people develop the illness.<ref name="pmid29748430">{{cite journal |vauthors=Quock TP, Yan T, Chang E, Guthrie S, Broder MS |title=Epidemiology of AL amyloidosis: a real-world study using US claims data |journal=Blood Adv |volume=2 |issue=10 |pages=1046–1053 |date=May 2018 |pmid=29748430 |pmc=5965052 |doi=10.1182/bloodadvances.2018016402 |url=}}</ref><ref name="ArdalanShoja2007">{{cite journal|last1=Ardalan|first1=M. R.|last2=Shoja|first2=M. M.|title=Reply|journal=Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation|volume=23|issue=3|year=2007|pages=1071–1072|issn=0931-0509|doi=10.1093/ndt/gfm586}}</ref><ref name="Suhr2019">{{cite journal|last1=Suhr|first1=Ole B|title=Commentary to Isabel Conceição et al. early diagnosis through targeted follow-up of identified carriers of TTR gene mutations|journal=Amyloid|volume=26|issue=1|year=2019|pages=1–2|issn=1350-6129|doi=10.1080/13506129.2018.1558051}}</ref><ref name="PihlamaaRautio2011">{{cite journal|last1=Pihlamaa|first1=Tiia|last2=Rautio|first2=Jorma|last3=Kiuru-Enari|first3=Sari|last4=Suominen|first4=Sinikka|title=Gelsolin Amyloidosis as a Cause of Early Aging and Progressive Bilateral Facial Paralysis|journal=Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery|volume=127|issue=6|year=2011|pages=2342–2351|issn=0032-1052|doi=10.1097/PRS.0b013e318213a0a2}}</ref><ref name="LachmannGoodman2007">{{cite journal|last1=Lachmann|first1=Helen J.|last2=Goodman|first2=Hugh J.B.|last3=Gilbertson|first3=Janet A.|last4=Gallimore|first4=J. Ruth|last5=Sabin|first5=Caroline A.|last6=Gillmore|first6=Julian D.|last7=Hawkins|first7=Philip N.|title=Natural History and Outcome in Systemic AA Amyloidosis|journal=New England Journal of Medicine|volume=356|issue=23|year=2007|pages=2361–2371|issn=0028-4793|doi=10.1056/NEJMoa070265}}</ref><ref name="pmid20301373">{{cite journal| author=Adam MP, Ardinger HH, Pagon RA, Wallace SE, Bean LJH, Stephens K et al.| title=GeneReviews® | journal= | year= 1993 | volume=  | issue=  | pages=  | pmid=20301373 | doi= | pmc= | url= }}</ref><ref name="IkedaYagi2008">{{cite journal|last1=Ikeda|first1=Etsuko|last2=Yagi|first2=Kiyohito|last3=Kojima|first3=Midori|last4=Yagyuu|first4=Takahiro|last5=Ohshima|first5=Akira|last6=Sobajima|first6=Satoshi|last7=Tadokoro|first7=Mika|last8=Katsube|first8=Yoshihiro|last9=Isoda|first9=Katsuhiro|last10=Kondoh|first10=Masuo|last11=Kawase|first11=Masaya|last12=Go|first12=Masahiro J|last13=Adachi|first13=Hisashi|last14=Yokota|first14=Yukiharu|last15=Kirita|first15=Tadaaki|last16=Ohgushi|first16=Hajime|title=Multipotent cells from the human third molar: feasibility of cell-based therapy for liver disease|journal=Differentiation|volume=76|issue=5|year=2008|pages=495–505|issn=03014681|doi=10.1111/j.1432-0436.2007.00245.x}}</ref><ref name="MorleyFreeman2007">{{cite journal|last1=Morley|first1=S. K.|last2=Freeman|first2=M. P.|last3=Tanskanen|first3=E. I.|title=A comparison of the probability distribution of observed  substorm magnitude with that predicted by a minimal substorm model|journal=Annales Geophysicae|volume=25|issue=11|year=2007|pages=2427–2437|issn=1432-0576|doi=10.5194/angeo-25-2427-2007}}</ref><ref name="pmid17028568">{{cite journal| author=Contégal F, Bidot S, Thauvin C, Lévèque L, Soichot P, Gras P et al.| title=[Finnish amyloid polyneuropathy in a French patient]. | journal=Rev Neurol (Paris) | year= 2006 | volume= 162 | issue= 10 | pages= 997-1001 | pmid=17028568 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17028568  }}</ref><ref name="MakiokaYamazaki2010">{{cite journal|last1=Makioka|first1=Kouki|last2=Yamazaki|first2=Tsuneo|last3=Fujita|first3=Yukio|last4=Takatama|first4=Masamitsu|last5=Nakazato|first5=Yoichi|last6=Okamoto|first6=Koichi|title=Involvement of endoplasmic reticulum stress defined by activated unfolded protein response in multiple system atrophy|journal=Journal of the Neurological Sciences|volume=297|issue=1-2|year=2010|pages=60–65|issn=0022510X|doi=10.1016/j.jns.2010.06.019}}</ref><ref name="Planté-BordeneuveSaid2011">{{cite journal|last1=Planté-Bordeneuve|first1=Violaine|last2=Said|first2=Gerard|title=Familial amyloid polyneuropathy|journal=The Lancet Neurology|volume=10|issue=12|year=2011|pages=1086–1097|issn=14744422|doi=10.1016/S1474-4422(11)70246-0}}</ref>
* In northern Sweden, more specifically Piteå, Skellefteå and Umeå, 1.5% of the population has the mutated gene.
* There are many other populations in the world who exhibit the illness after having developed it independently.
*The majority of gelsolin related amyloidosis cases are reported in the United States, Japan, Portugal, England, Germany, Spain, France, Brazil, Sewden, Denmark, the Czech Republic, and Iran.


OR
==Risk Factors==
 
*Common risk factors in the development of familial amyloidosis include:<ref name="pmid21494083">{{cite journal |vauthors=Shin YM |title=Hepatic amyloidosis |journal=Korean J Hepatol |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=80–3 |date=March 2011 |pmid=21494083 |pmc=3304630 |doi=10.3350/kjhep.2011.17.1.80 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid11677276">{{cite journal |vauthors=Khan MF, Falk RH |title=Amyloidosis |journal=Postgrad Med J |volume=77 |issue=913 |pages=686–93 |date=November 2001 |pmid=11677276 |pmc=1742163 |doi= |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid214940832">{{cite journal |vauthors=Shin YM |title=Hepatic amyloidosis |journal=Korean J Hepatol |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=80–3 |date=March 2011 |pmid=21494083 |pmc=3304630 |doi=10.3350/kjhep.2011.17.1.80 |url=}}</ref>
Common risk factors in the development of [disease name] may be occupational, environmental, genetic, and viral.
**Older age
**Male gender
**African american race
**Positive family history


==Screening==
==Screening==
There is insufficient evidence to recommend routine screening for [disease/malignancy].
There is insufficient evidence to recommend routine screening for amyloidosis.
 
OR
 
According to the [guideline name], screening for [disease name] is not recommended.
 
OR
 
According to the [guideline name], screening for [disease name] by [test 1] is recommended every [duration] among patients with [condition 1], [condition 2], and [condition 3].


==Natural History, Complications, and Prognosis==
==Natural History, Complications, and Prognosis==
If left untreated, [#]% of patients with [disease name] may progress to develop [manifestation 1], [manifestation 2], and [manifestation 3].


OR
Common complications of [disease name] include [complication 1], [complication 2], and [complication 3].
OR
Prognosis is generally excellent/good/poor, and the 1/5/10-year mortality/survival rate of patients with [disease name] is approximately [#]%.


==Diagnosis==
==Diagnosis==
===Diagnostic Study of Choice===
===Diagnostic Study of Choice===
The diagnosis of [disease name] is made when at least [number] of the following [number] diagnostic criteria are met: [criterion 1], [criterion 2], [criterion 3], and [criterion 4].
* Tissue biopsy with Congo red stain is the gold standard test for the diagnosis of familial amyloidosis.<ref name="pmid12553428">{{cite journal |vauthors=Benson MD, Yazaki M, Magy N |title=Laboratory assessment of transthyretin amyloidosis |journal=Clin. Chem. Lab. Med. |volume=40 |issue=12 |pages=1262–5 |date=December 2002 |pmid=12553428 |doi=10.1515/CCLM.2002.218 |url=}}</ref>
 
OR


The diagnosis of [disease name] is based on the [criteria name] criteria, which include [criterion 1], [criterion 2], and [criterion 3].
* Biopsy tissue may be taken from an affected organ like kidney, or from subcutaneous fat or rectal mucosa.
* The rectal mucosa biopsy is more sensitive for:
** [[Transthyretin|Transthyretin (TTR)]]
** [[Apolipoprotein AI]]
** Apolipoprotein AII
** [[Fibrinogen A alpha-chain associated amyloidosis|Fibrinogen Aa]]
* Biopsy of the affected organ is recommended for patients with limited organ involvement.<ref name="pmid12479513">{{cite journal |vauthors=Andrews TR, Colon-Otero G, Calamia KT, Menke DM, Boylan KB, Kyle RA |title=Utility of subcutaneous fat aspiration for diagnosing amyloidosis in patients with isolated peripheral neuropathy |journal=Mayo Clin. Proc. |volume=77 |issue=12 |pages=1287–90 |date=December 2002 |pmid=12479513 |doi=10.4065/77.12.1287 |url=}}</ref>
* Biopsy from unaffected organs is more sensitive in patients with multi-organ involvement.


OR
===== Diagnostic results =====
The following finding on performing tissue biopsy is confirmatory for familial amyloidosis:<ref name="pmid13657054">{{cite journal |vauthors=COHEN AS, CALKINS E |title=Electron microscopic observations on a fibrous component in amyloid of diverse origins |journal=Nature |volume=183 |issue=4669 |pages=1202–3 |date=April 1959 |pmid=13657054 |doi=10.1038/1831202a0 |url=}}</ref><ref name="pmid11552976">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kyle RA |title=Amyloidosis: a convoluted story |journal=Br. J. Haematol. |volume=114 |issue=3 |pages=529–38 |date=September 2001 |pmid=11552976 |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2141.2001.02999.x |url=}}</ref>


The diagnosis of [disease name] is based on the [definition name] definition, which includes [criterion 1], [criterion 2], and [criterion 3].
* Apple green birefringence of the tissue sample under polarized light with Congo red stain.
*


OR
===== Sequence of Diagnostic Studies =====
 
The various investigations must be performed in the following order:
There are no established criteria for the diagnosis of [disease name].
* History
**Although all the familial amyloidosis types are autosomal dominant, different degree of temperance makes it difficult to diagnose the disease based on family history.
*Physical examination
*Biopsy


=== Name of Diagnostic Criteria ===
There are no established criteria for the diagnosis of familial amyloidosis.
===History and Symptoms===
===History and Symptoms===
The majority of patients with [disease name] are asymptomatic.
OR


The hallmark of [disease name] is [finding]. A positive history of [finding 1] and [finding 2] is suggestive of [disease name]. The most common symptoms of [disease name] include [symptom 1], [symptom 2], and [symptom 3]. Common symptoms of [disease] include [symptom 1], [symptom 2], and [symptom 3]. Less common symptoms of [disease name] include [symptom 1], [symptom 2], and [symptom 3].


===Physical Examination===
===Physical Examination===

Revision as of 15:15, 12 November 2019

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Fahimeh Shojaei, M.D.

Synonyms and keywords:

Overview

Historical Perspective

Classification

Apolipoprotein AI amyloidosis is one of the subtypes of familial amyloidosis. Familiar amyloidosis may be classified according to the type of mutant protein into 6 subtypes:[4][5][6]

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
genes involved in familial amyloidosis
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Transthyretin (TTR)
 
Apolipoprotein AI
 
Gelsolin
 
Lysozyme
 
Cystatin C
 
Fibrinogen Aa-chain
 
Apolipoprotein AII


Pathophysiology

Pathogenesis

  • It is understood that amyloidosis is the result of deposition of Amyloid.[7]
  • Amyloid is an abnormal insoluble extracellular protein which may cause organic dysfunction and a wide variety of clinical syndromes.
  • These abnormal amyloids are derived from misfolding and aggregation of normally soluble proteins.
  • Amyloid depositions also have glycosaminoglycans and serum amyloid P component (SAP) which alter the propensity for amyloid formation.[8][9][10]
  • Amyloid deposition can disrupt tissue structure of involved organ and consequently leads to organ failure.[11]
  • Genetic mutations in Apolipoprotein AI gene may lead to misfolding protein product.

Genetics

  • Single nucleotide substitutions in apolipoprotein AI gene.[12]
  • The underlying pathogenesis is incomplete degradation of this protein in body.
  • The mode of inheritance in autosomal dominant with different penetrance.

Causes

Common cause of Apolipoprotein AI amyloidosis is genetic mutation.[13][4][5][14]

Differentiating Apolipoprotein AI amyloidosis from Other Diseases

Epidemiology and Demographics

Incidence

  • The incidence of amyloidosis is approximately 1.2 per 100,000 individuals per year worldwide.[15]

Mortality rate

  • The mortality rate of systemic amyloidosis is approximately 100 per 100,000 deaths in developed countries.[16]

Age

Race

  • Hereditary amyloidosis subtypes include a substitution of an amino acid that is detected in approximately 4% of the african american population.[3]

Gender

  • Men are more commonly affected by amyloidosis than women.[23]

Region

  • Transthyretin-related hereditary amyloidosis is endemic in Portuguese locations Póvoa de Varzim and Vila do Conde (Caxinas), with more than 1000 affected people, coming from about 500 families, where 70% of the people develop the illness.[24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34]
  • In northern Sweden, more specifically Piteå, Skellefteå and Umeå, 1.5% of the population has the mutated gene.
  • There are many other populations in the world who exhibit the illness after having developed it independently.
  • The majority of gelsolin related amyloidosis cases are reported in the United States, Japan, Portugal, England, Germany, Spain, France, Brazil, Sewden, Denmark, the Czech Republic, and Iran.

Risk Factors

  • Common risk factors in the development of familial amyloidosis include:[23][3][17]
    • Older age
    • Male gender
    • African american race
    • Positive family history

Screening

There is insufficient evidence to recommend routine screening for amyloidosis.

Natural History, Complications, and Prognosis

Diagnosis

Diagnostic Study of Choice

  • Tissue biopsy with Congo red stain is the gold standard test for the diagnosis of familial amyloidosis.[35]
  • Biopsy tissue may be taken from an affected organ like kidney, or from subcutaneous fat or rectal mucosa.
  • The rectal mucosa biopsy is more sensitive for:
  • Biopsy of the affected organ is recommended for patients with limited organ involvement.[36]
  • Biopsy from unaffected organs is more sensitive in patients with multi-organ involvement.
Diagnostic results

The following finding on performing tissue biopsy is confirmatory for familial amyloidosis:[37][38]

  • Apple green birefringence of the tissue sample under polarized light with Congo red stain.
Sequence of Diagnostic Studies

The various investigations must be performed in the following order:

  • History
    • Although all the familial amyloidosis types are autosomal dominant, different degree of temperance makes it difficult to diagnose the disease based on family history.
  • Physical examination
  • Biopsy

Name of Diagnostic Criteria

There are no established criteria for the diagnosis of familial amyloidosis.

History and Symptoms

Physical Examination

Patients with [disease name] usually appear [general appearance]. Physical examination of patients with [disease name] is usually remarkable for [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

OR

Common physical examination findings of [disease name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

OR

The presence of [finding(s)] on physical examination is diagnostic of [disease name].

OR

The presence of [finding(s)] on physical examination is highly suggestive of [disease name].

Laboratory Findings

An elevated/reduced concentration of serum/blood/urinary/CSF/other [lab test] is diagnostic of [disease name].

OR

Laboratory findings consistent with the diagnosis of [disease name] include [abnormal test 1], [abnormal test 2], and [abnormal test 3].

OR

[Test] is usually normal among patients with [disease name].

OR

Some patients with [disease name] may have elevated/reduced concentration of [test], which is usually suggestive of [progression/complication].

OR

There are no diagnostic laboratory findings associated with [disease name].

Electrocardiogram

There are no ECG findings associated with [disease name].

OR

An ECG may be helpful in the diagnosis of [disease name]. Findings on an ECG suggestive of/diagnostic of [disease name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

X-ray

There are no x-ray findings associated with [disease name].

OR

An x-ray may be helpful in the diagnosis of [disease name]. Findings on an x-ray suggestive of/diagnostic of [disease name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

OR

There are no x-ray findings associated with [disease name]. However, an x-ray may be helpful in the diagnosis of complications of [disease name], which include [complication 1], [complication 2], and [complication 3].

Echocardiography or Ultrasound

There are no echocardiography/ultrasound findings associated with [disease name].

OR

Echocardiography/ultrasound may be helpful in the diagnosis of [disease name]. Findings on an echocardiography/ultrasound suggestive of/diagnostic of [disease name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

OR

There are no echocardiography/ultrasound findings associated with [disease name]. However, an echocardiography/ultrasound may be helpful in the diagnosis of complications of [disease name], which include [complication 1], [complication 2], and [complication 3].

CT scan

There are no CT scan findings associated with [disease name].

OR

[Location] CT scan may be helpful in the diagnosis of [disease name]. Findings on CT scan suggestive of/diagnostic of [disease name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

OR

There are no CT scan findings associated with [disease name]. However, a CT scan may be helpful in the diagnosis of complications of [disease name], which include [complication 1], [complication 2], and [complication 3].

MRI

There are no MRI findings associated with [disease name].

OR

[Location] MRI may be helpful in the diagnosis of [disease name]. Findings on MRI suggestive of/diagnostic of [disease name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

OR

There are no MRI findings associated with [disease name]. However, a MRI may be helpful in the diagnosis of complications of [disease name], which include [complication 1], [complication 2], and [complication 3].

Other Imaging Findings

There are no other imaging findings associated with [disease name].

OR

[Imaging modality] may be helpful in the diagnosis of [disease name]. Findings on an [imaging modality] suggestive of/diagnostic of [disease name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

Other Diagnostic Studies

There are no other diagnostic studies associated with [disease name].

OR

[Diagnostic study] may be helpful in the diagnosis of [disease name]. Findings suggestive of/diagnostic of [disease name] include [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

OR

Other diagnostic studies for [disease name] include [diagnostic study 1], which demonstrates [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3], and [diagnostic study 2], which demonstrates [finding 1], [finding 2], and [finding 3].

Treatment

Medical Therapy

There is no treatment for [disease name]; the mainstay of therapy is supportive care.

OR

Supportive therapy for [disease name] includes [therapy 1], [therapy 2], and [therapy 3].

OR

The majority of cases of [disease name] are self-limited and require only supportive care.

OR

[Disease name] is a medical emergency and requires prompt treatment.

OR

The mainstay of treatment for [disease name] is [therapy].

OR   The optimal therapy for [malignancy name] depends on the stage at diagnosis.

OR

[Therapy] is recommended among all patients who develop [disease name].

OR

Pharmacologic medical therapy is recommended among patients with [disease subclass 1], [disease subclass 2], and [disease subclass 3].

OR

Pharmacologic medical therapies for [disease name] include (either) [therapy 1], [therapy 2], and/or [therapy 3].

OR

Empiric therapy for [disease name] depends on [disease factor 1] and [disease factor 2].

OR

Patients with [disease subclass 1] are treated with [therapy 1], whereas patients with [disease subclass 2] are treated with [therapy 2].

Surgery

Surgical intervention is not recommended for the management of [disease name].

OR

Surgery is not the first-line treatment option for patients with [disease name]. Surgery is usually reserved for patients with either [indication 1], [indication 2], and [indication 3]

OR

The mainstay of treatment for [disease name] is medical therapy. Surgery is usually reserved for patients with either [indication 1], [indication 2], and/or [indication 3].

OR

The feasibility of surgery depends on the stage of [malignancy] at diagnosis.

OR

Surgery is the mainstay of treatment for [disease or malignancy].

Primary Prevention

There are no established measures for the primary prevention of [disease name].

OR

There are no available vaccines against [disease name].

OR

Effective measures for the primary prevention of [disease name] include [measure1], [measure2], and [measure3].

OR

[Vaccine name] vaccine is recommended for [patient population] to prevent [disease name]. Other primary prevention strategies include [strategy 1], [strategy 2], and [strategy 3].

Secondary Prevention

There are no established measures for the secondary prevention of [disease name].

OR

Effective measures for the secondary prevention of [disease name] include [strategy 1], [strategy 2], and [strategy 3].

References

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