Aicardi syndrome

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Moises Romo M.D.


Overview

Aicardi syndrome is a rare malformation characterized by the partial or total absence of the corpus callosum, the presence of retinal abnormalities, and seizures in the form of infantile spasms. Physical examination demonstrate microcephaly, axial hypotonia, and appendicular hypertonia with spasticity. Aicardi syndrome is thought to be an inherited X-linked dominant disorder due to affection almost exclusively to females and boys with Klinefelter’s syndrome.

Historical Perspective

  • In 1946, Krause described a 2-months old girl with seizures, mental retardation, and microcephalus which later died from pneumonia.[1]
  • In 1959, Klein described in an article called "The Pathogenesis of an Atypical Coloboma of the Choroid" an almost identical case of a 2-months old girls with same clinical and anatomopathological findings as Krause.[2]
  • Aicardi syndrome was first fully described by the French neurologist Jean Aicardi in 1965 in his article "A new syndrome: Spasm in flexion, Callosal agenesis, Ocular abnormalities".[3][4]
  • Historically, Aicardi syndrome was characterized by the triad of infantile spasms, chorioretinal lacunae and agenesis of the corpus callosum.[4]

Classification

  • There is no established system for classification of Aicardi syndrome.

Pathosphysiology

Genetics

Causes

  • The cause of Aicardi syndrome has not been identified. Due to almost exclusive involvement to females, it is thought that causative mutation is located in X chromosome, but this altered gene has not been identified.[13]

Differentiating Aicardi syndrome from Other Diseases

Epidemiology and Demographics

  • Aicardi syndrome is a very rare condition. A precise prevalence and incidence have not been calculated.
  • Around 500 cases of Aicardi syndrome have been reported worldwide.
  • The incidence of Aicardi syndrome has been estimated between 1:105,000 and 1:167,000 in the United States and between 1:93,000 and 1:99,000 in some European countries.[18][19]
  • The prevalence of Aicardi syndrome in the United States has been calculated to be over 853 in the US and over 4,000 worldwide.[18][19]

Gender

  • Females are more commonly affected with Aicardi syndrome than males.[5]

Age[edit | edit source]

Race[edit | edit source]

  • Apparently, there is no racial predilection for Aicardi syndrome.[20]

Risk Factors

  • There are no recognized risk factors associated with Aicardi syndrome development.

Screening

Natural History, Complications, Prognosis

  • Prognosis for Aicardi syndrome is variable, with the mean age of death about 8.3 years and the median age of death about 18.5 years.[5][21][22]
  • Most of affected females are apparently normal at birth and present infantile spasms around the age of 3 months.
  • The majority of females with Aicardi syndrome develop seizures before age 1.[23]

Diagnosis

Diagnostic Criteria

  • The diagnosis of Aicardi syndrome according to Sutton et al.[24] (modified from Aicardi 1999[25])is made by the presence of all 3 classic features or 2 classic features plus 2 major features; in addition there are supporting features that make diagnosis more reliable.[26]
Diagnosis of Aicardi syndrome
Classic features Agenesis of the corpus callosum
Infantile spasms
Distinctive chorioretinal lacunae
Major features Cortical malformations
Periventricular and subcortical heterotopia
Cysts around third cerebral ventricle and/or choroid plexus
Optic disc/nerve coloboma or hypoplasia
Supporting features Vertebral and rib abnormalities
Microphthalmia
"Split-brain" EEG
Gross cerebral hemispheric asymmetry
Vascular malformations or vascular malignancy

History and Symptoms

  • Most of individuals with Aicardi syndrome are asymptomatic, but symptoms may vary depending on clinical presentation.

Physical Examination

  • The following characteristics have been present among the reported cases of Aicardi syndrome, it should be noted that most of these features are not present and do not confirm the diagnostic criteria:

Neurologic

Ophthalmologic

Craniofacial

Skeletal

Gastrointestinal

Extremities

Dermatologic

Tumors/malignancies

Endocrine

Laboratory Findings

  • There are no specific laboratory findings associated with Aicardi syndrome.

EEG

  • EEG findings associated with Aicardi syndrome include asynchronous multifocal epileptiform defects with breach subduing and separation between the two hemispheres (split-brain).

Electrocardiogram

X-ray

Echocardiography or Ultrasound

CT scan

MRI

Other Imaging Findings


  • There are no other imaging findings associated with Aicardi syndrome.

Other Diagnostic Studies


  • There are no other diagnostic studies associated with Aicardi syndrome.

Treatment

Medical Therapy

Surgery

Prevention

Support Organizations

Aicardi Syndrome Foundation Support and information for families caring for children with Aicardi Syndrome.
A.A.L Syndrome d'Aicardi
Sindrome di Aicardi

References

  1. KRAUSE AC (October 1946). "Congenital encephalo-ophthalmic dysplasia". Arch Ophthal. 36 (4): 387–44. doi:10.1001/archopht.1946.00890210395001. PMID 21002031.
  2. KLIEN BA (November 1959). "The pathogenesis of some atypical colobomas of the choroid". Am. J. Ophthalmol. 48: 597–607. doi:10.1016/0002-9394(59)90450-7. PMID 14409836.
  3. Wong, Bibiana K. Y.; Sutton, V. Reid (2018). "Aicardi syndrome, an unsolved mystery: Review of diagnostic features, previous attempts, and future opportunities for genetic examination". American Journal of Medical Genetics Part C: Seminars in Medical Genetics. doi:10.1002/ajmg.c.31658. ISSN 1552-4868.
  4. 4.0 4.1 "www.int-pediatrics.org" (PDF).
  5. 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 Adam MP, Ardinger HH, Pagon RA, Wallace SE, Bean L, Stephens K, Amemiya A, Sutton VR, Van den Veyver IB. PMID 20301555. Vancouver style error: initials (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  6. Van den Veyver IB (2002). "Microphthalmia with linear skin defects (MLS), Aicardi, and Goltz syndromes: are they related X-linked dominant male-lethal disorders?". Cytogenet. Genome Res. 99 (1–4): 289–96. doi:10.1159/000071606. PMID 12900577.
  7. Wang X, Sutton VR, Eble TN, Lewis RA, Gunaratne P, Patel A, Van den Veyver IB (October 2009). "A genome-wide screen for copy number alterations in Aicardi syndrome". Am. J. Med. Genet. A. 149A (10): 2113–21. doi:10.1002/ajmg.a.32976. PMC 3640635. PMID 19760649.
  8. Yilmaz S, Fontaine H, Brochet K, Grégoire MJ, Devignes MD, Schaff JL, Philippe C, Nemos C, McGregor JL, Jonveaux P (2007). "Screening of subtle copy number changes in Aicardi syndrome patients with a high resolution X chromosome array-CGH". Eur J Med Genet. 50 (5): 386–91. doi:10.1016/j.ejmg.2007.05.006. PMID 17625997.
  9. Zubairi MS, Carter RF, Ronen GM (February 2009). "A male phenotype with Aicardi syndrome". J. Child Neurol. 24 (2): 204–7. doi:10.1177/0883073808322337. PMID 19182158.
  10. Shetty J, Fraser J, Goudie D, Kirkpatrick M (July 2014). "Aicardi syndrome in a 47 XXY male - a variable developmental phenotype?". Eur. J. Paediatr. Neurol. 18 (4): 529–31. doi:10.1016/j.ejpn.2014.03.004. PMID 24657013.
  11. Chappelow AV, Reid J, Parikh S, Traboulsi EI (December 2008). "Aicardi syndrome in a genotypic male". Ophthalmic Genet. 29 (4): 181–3. doi:10.1080/13816810802320209. PMID 19005990.
  12. Anderson S, Menten B, Kogelenberg M, Robertson S, Waginger M, Mentzel HJ, Brandl U, Skirl G, Willems P (February 2009). "Aicardi syndrome in a male patient". Neuropediatrics. 40 (1): 39–42. doi:10.1055/s-0029-1220760. PMID 19639527. Vancouver style error: initials (help)
  13. "Aicardi Syndrome - GeneReviews® - NCBI Bookshelf".
  14. Barkovich AJ, Simon EM, Walsh CA (January 2001). "Callosal agenesis with cyst: a better understanding and new classification". Neurology. 56 (2): 220–7. doi:10.1212/wnl.56.2.220. PMID 11160959.
  15. "Agenesis of Corpus Callosum - NORD (National Organization for Rare Disorders)".
  16. Guerrini, Renzo; Parrini, Elena (2010). "Neuronal migration disorders". Neurobiology of Disease. 38 (2): 154–166. doi:10.1016/j.nbd.2009.02.008. ISSN 0969-9961.
  17. Moog U, Jones MC, Bird LM, Dobyns WB (December 2005). "Oculocerebrocutaneous syndrome: the brain malformation defines a core phenotype". J. Med. Genet. 42 (12): 913–21. doi:10.1136/jmg.2005.031369. PMC 1735958. PMID 15879499.
  18. 18.0 18.1 Kroner BL, Preiss LR, Ardini MA, Gaillard WD (May 2008). "New incidence, prevalence, and survival of Aicardi syndrome from 408 cases". J. Child Neurol. 23 (5): 531–5. doi:10.1177/0883073807309782. PMID 18182643.
  19. 19.0 19.1 Adam MP, Ardinger HH, Pagon RA, Wallace SE, Bean L, Stephens K, Amemiya A, Sutton VR, Van den Veyver IB. PMID 20301555. Vancouver style error: initials (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  20. 20.0 20.1 "Aicardi Syndrome - NORD (National Organization for Rare Disorders)".
  21. Kroner BL, Preiss LR, Ardini MA, Gaillard WD (May 2008). "New incidence, prevalence, and survival of Aicardi syndrome from 408 cases". J. Child Neurol. 23 (5): 531–5. doi:10.1177/0883073807309782. PMID 18182643.
  22. 22.0 22.1 22.2 Glasmacher MA, Sutton VR, Hopkins B, Eble T, Lewis RA, Park Parsons D, Van den Veyver IB (February 2007). "Phenotype and management of Aicardi syndrome: new findings from a survey of 69 children". J. Child Neurol. 22 (2): 176–84. doi:10.1177/0883073807300298. PMID 17621479.
  23. Adam MP, Ardinger HH, Pagon RA, Wallace SE, Bean L, Stephens K, Amemiya A, Sutton VR, Van den Veyver IB. PMID 20301555. Vancouver style error: initials (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  24. Sutton VR, Hopkins BJ, Eble TN, Gambhir N, Lewis RA, Van den Veyver IB (October 2005). "Facial and physical features of Aicardi syndrome: infants to teenagers". Am. J. Med. Genet. A. 138A (3): 254–8. doi:10.1002/ajmg.a.30963. PMID 16158440.
  25. "www.int-pediatrics.org" (PDF).
  26. Adam MP, Ardinger HH, Pagon RA, Wallace SE, Bean L, Stephens K, Amemiya A, Sutton VR, Van den Veyver IB. PMID 20301555. Vancouver style error: initials (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  27. 27.0 27.1 27.2 Aicardi J (April 2005). "Aicardi syndrome". Brain Dev. 27 (3): 164–71. doi:10.1016/j.braindev.2003.11.011. PMID 15737696.
  28. Yacoub M, Missaoui N, Tabarli B, Ghorbel M, Tlili K, Selmi H, Essoussi A (June 2003). "[Aicardi syndrome with favorable outcome]". Arch Pediatr (in French). 10 (6): 530–2. doi:10.1016/s0929-693x(03)00095-2. PMID 12915018.
  29. Grosso S, Lasorella G, Russo A, Galluzzi P, Morgese G, Balestri P (August 2007). "Aicardi syndrome with favorable outcome: case report and review". Brain Dev. 29 (7): 443–6. doi:10.1016/j.braindev.2006.11.011. PMID 17207597.
  30. Donnenfeld AE, Packer RJ, Zackai EH, Chee CM, Sellinger B, Emanuel BS (April 1989). "Clinical, cytogenetic, and pedigree findings in 18 cases of Aicardi syndrome". Am. J. Med. Genet. 32 (4): 461–7. doi:10.1002/ajmg.1320320405. PMID 2773986.
  31. Palmér L, Zetterlund B, Hård AL, Steneryd K, Kyllerman M (June 2006). "Aicardi syndrome: presentation at onset in Swedish children born in 1975-2002". Neuropediatrics. 37 (3): 154–8. doi:10.1055/s-2006-924486. PMID 16967367.
  32. Sutton VR, Hopkins BJ, Eble TN, Gambhir N, Lewis RA, Van den Veyver IB (October 2005). "Facial and physical features of Aicardi syndrome: infants to teenagers". Am. J. Med. Genet. A. 138A (3): 254–8. doi:10.1002/ajmg.a.30963. PMID 16158440.
  33. Donnenfeld AE, Packer RJ, Zackai EH, Chee CM, Sellinger B, Emanuel BS (April 1989). "Clinical, cytogenetic, and pedigree findings in 18 cases of Aicardi syndrome". Am. J. Med. Genet. 32 (4): 461–7. doi:10.1002/ajmg.1320320405. PMID 2773986.
  34. Glasmacher MA, Sutton VR, Hopkins B, Eble T, Lewis RA, Park Parsons D, Van den Veyver IB (February 2007). "Phenotype and management of Aicardi syndrome: new findings from a survey of 69 children". J. Child Neurol. 22 (2): 176–84. doi:10.1177/0883073807300298. PMID 17621479.
  35. 35.0 35.1 35.2 35.3 Sutton VR, Hopkins BJ, Eble TN, Gambhir N, Lewis RA, Van den Veyver IB (October 2005). "Facial and physical features of Aicardi syndrome: infants to teenagers". Am. J. Med. Genet. A. 138A (3): 254–8. doi:10.1002/ajmg.a.30963. PMID 16158440.
  36. Taggard DA, Menezes AH (October 2000). "Three choroid plexus papillomas in a patient with Aicardi syndrome. A case report". Pediatr Neurosurg. 33 (4): 219–23. doi:10.1159/000055956. PMID 11124640.
  37. Pianetti Filho G, Fonseca LF, da Silva MC (December 2002). "Choroid plexus papilloma and Aicardi syndrome: case report". Arq Neuropsiquiatr. 60 (4): 1008–10. doi:10.1590/s0004-282x2002000600023. PMID 12563397.
  38. Kamien BA, Gabbett MT (August 2009). "Aicardi syndrome associated with hepatoblastoma and pulmonary sequestration". Am. J. Med. Genet. A. 149A (8): 1850–2. doi:10.1002/ajmg.a.32985. PMID 19610089.
  39. Palmér L, Nordborg C, Steneryd K, Aman P, Kyllerman M (October 2004). "Large-cell medulloblastoma in Aicardi syndrome. Case report and literature review". Neuropediatrics. 35 (5): 307–11. doi:10.1055/s-2004-821253. PMID 15534766.
  40. 40.0 40.1 40.2 Adam MP, Ardinger HH, Pagon RA, Wallace SE, Bean L, Stephens K, Amemiya A, Sutton VR, Van den Veyver IB. PMID 20301555. Vancouver style error: initials (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  41. 41.0 41.1 Adam MP, Ardinger HH, Pagon RA, Wallace SE, Bean L, Stephens K, Amemiya A, Sutton VR, Van den Veyver IB. PMID 20301555. Vancouver style error: initials (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)

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