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{{Major depressive disorder}} | |||
{{CMG}}; '''Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief:''' [[User:Aditya Govindavarjhulla|Aditya Govindavarjhulla, M.B.B.S.]] [mailto:agovi@wikidoc.org] | |||
==Overview== | |||
Current theories regarding the risk factors and causes of [[major depressive disorder]] can be broadly classified into two categories, Physiological and [[Sociopsychological]]. | |||
==Causes== | ==Causes== | ||
*[[Major depressive disorder]] | Current theories regarding the risk factors and causes of [[major depressive disorder]] can be broadly classified into two categories, Physiological and [[Sociopsychological]]. | ||
===A. Physiological=== | |||
====Genetic Predisposition==== | |||
The tendency to develop depression may be inherited: according to the [[National Institute of Mental Health]]<ref>[http://depression.about.com/od/causes/a/mutantgene.htm Genetic Link Found for Depression<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> there is some evidence that depression may run in families. Most experts believe that both biological and psychological factors play a role. | |||
====Neurological==== | |||
Many modern [[antidepressant]] [[Psychoactive drug|drug]]s change levels of certain [[neurotransmitters]], namely [[serotonin]] and [[norepinephrine]] (noradrenaline). However, the relationship between serotonin, [[Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor|SSRIs]], and depression is typically greatly oversimplified when presented to the public, though this may be due to the lack of scientific knowledge regarding the mechanisms of action.<ref>[http://medicine.plosjournals.org/archive/1549-1676/2/12/pdf/10.1371_journal.pmed.0020392-L.pdf PLME0212_1211-1216.indd<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Evidence has shown the involvement of [[neurogenesis]] in depression, though the role is not exactly known. Recent research has suggested that there may be a link between depression and [[neurogenesis]] of the [[hippocampus]].<ref>Dr Helen Mayberg, quoted in http://www.sciammind.com/article.cfm?&articleID=0002AD36-CF84-14C7-8DCC83414B7F0000 ''Scientific American'', volume 17, number 4, pp. 26-31</ref> This horseshoe-shaped structure is a center for both mood and memory. Loss of [[neuron]]s in the [[hippocampus]] is found in depression and correlates with impaired memory and dysthymic mood. The most widely accepted explanation for this is that the drugs increase serotonin levels in the brain which in turn stimulate neurogenesis and therefore increase the total mass of the hippocampus and would in theory restore mood and memory, therefore assisting in the fight against the mood disorder. | |||
In about one-third of individuals diagnosed with [[attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD), a disorder widely believed to be [[neurological disorder|neurological]] and [[developmental disorder|developmental]], depression is recognized as [[comorbid]].<ref>Hallowell, Edward M.; John J. Ratey (2005). ''Delivered from Distraction : Getting the Most out of Life with Attention Deficit Disorder''. New York: Ballantine Books, p. 253–5. ISBN 0-345-44231-8. </ref> [[Dysthymia]], a form of chronic, low-level depression, is particularly common in adults with undiagnosed ADHD who have encountered years of frustrating ADHD-related problems with education, employment, and interpersonal relationships.<ref>see Hallowell and Ratey, 2005</ref> | |||
New evidence shows that individuals with clinical depression exhibit markedly higher levels of [[monoamine oxidase A]] (MAO-A) in the brain compared to people without depression.<ref>Jeffrey H. Meyer, MD, PhD; Nathalie Ginovart, PhD; Anahita Boovariwala, BSc; Sandra Sagrati, BSc; Doug Hussey, BSc; Armando Garcia, BSc; Trevor Young, MD, PhD; Nicole Praschak-Rieder, MD; Alan A. Wilson, PhD; Sylvain Houle, MD, PhD, "Elevated Monoamine Oxidase A Levels in the Brain -- An Explanation for the Monoamine Imbalance of Major Depression," Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2006;63:1209-1216.[http://archpsyc.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/abstract/63/11/1209]</ref> MAO-A is an [[enzyme]] which reacts with and decreases the concentration of [[monoamine]]s such as serotonin, norephinephrine and dopamine. | |||
====Medical Conditions==== | |||
Certain illnesses, including [[cardiovascular disease]],<ref>{{cite journal | url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15581413 | title = 5-Lipoxygenase as a putative link between cardiovascular and psychiatric disorders | last = Manev | first = R | coauthors = Manev H | journal = Critical Reviews in Neurobiology |date=2004 | volume = 16 | issue = 1?2 | pages = 181?6 }}</ref> [[hepatitis]], [[mononucleosis]], [[hypothyroidism]], [[fructose malabsorption]],<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ledochowski M, Sperner-Unterweger B, Widner B, Fuchs D |title=Fructose malabsorption is associated with early signs of mental depression |journal=Eur. J. Med. Res. |volume=3 |issue=6 |pages=295-8 |year=1998 |pmid=9620891 |doi=}}</ref> [[sleep apnea]], and organic brain damage caused by degenerative conditions such as [[Parkinson disease]], [[Multiple Sclerosis]] or by traumatic blunt force injury may contribute to depression, as may certain prescription drugs such as [[hormonal contraception]] methods and [[steroid]]s. Depression also occurs in patients with chronic [[pain]], such as chronic [[back pain]], much more frequently than in the general population. Fibromyalgia Syndrome sufferers also experience depression and anxiety. Dampness or mold in the home is associated with depression,<ref>Dampness and Mold in the Home and Depression: An Examination of Mold-Related Illness and Perceived Control of One’s Home as Possible Depression Pathways | |||
Edmond D. Shenassa, ScD, Constantine Daskalakis, ScD, Allison Liebhaber, BA, Matthias Braubach, MPH and MaryJean Brown, ScD, RN | |||
October 2007, Vol 97, No. 10 | RESEARCH AND PRACTICE | American Journal of Public Health 1893-1899 | |||
© 2007 American Public Health Association | |||
DOI: 10.2105/AJPH.2006.093773 | |||
http://www.ajph.org/cgi/content/abstract/97/10/1893?HITS=10&sortspec=relevance&hits=10&author1=Edmond+Shenassa&maxtoshow=&FIRSTINDEX=0&resourcetype=HWCIT&searchid=1&RESULTFORMAT= PMID 17761567</ref> as is the frequent use of aerosols and air fresheners in the home.<ref>"Symptoms of mothers and infants related to total volatile organic compounds in household products" Arch Environ Health. 2003 Oct;58(10):633-41; PMID 15562635; | |||
"Air fresheners can make mothers and babies ill" University of Bristol press release issued 19 October 2004 http://www.bristol.ac.uk/news/2004/541</ref> | |||
====Dietary==== | |||
Poor diet has been linked with depression. An imbalanced diet or a diet that does not provide enough [[calorie]]s can worsen or induce depression. | |||
Excessive consumption of [[sugar]] has been proven to alter mood (causing a 'rush' or 'high', hyperactivity and subsequent deterioration of mood for exapmple, iritability), such consumption can be detrimental regarding the mood changes experienced in depressive conditions. | |||
Alcoholic beverages contain the [[psychoactive drug]] [[ethanol]], a depressant; If included to a diet in large quantities, it can induce depression. If it is introduced into the diet of a person who is already a depressive, comparatively little can greatly worsen depression both in the short and longer term.<ref>http://www.emedicine.com/ped/topic2715.htm</ref> | |||
====Sleep Quality==== | |||
Poor sleep quality co-occurs with major depression. Major depression leads to alterations in the function of the hypothalamus and pituitary causing excessive release of [[cortisol]] which can lead to poor sleep quality. Individuals suffering from major depression have been found to have an abnormal sleep architecture, often entering [[REM sleep]] sooner than usual, along with highly emotionally-charged dreaming. [[Antidepressant]] drugs, which often function as REM sleep suppressants, may serve to dampen abnormal REM activity and thus allow for a more restorative sleep to occur. | |||
====Seasonal Affective Disorder==== | |||
[[Seasonal affective disorder]] (SAD) is a type of depressive disorder that occurs in the winter when daylight hours are short. It is believed that the body's production of [[melatonin]], which is produced at higher levels in the dark, plays a major part in the onset of SAD and that many sufferers respond well to bright light therapy, also known as [[phototherapy]].<ref>http://www.faqs.org/health/topics/0/Phototherapy.html</ref> | |||
====Postpartum Depression==== | |||
[[Postpartum depression]] refers to the intense, sustained and sometimes disabling depression experienced by women after giving birth. Postpartum depression, which has incidence rate of 10-15%, typically sets in within three months of [[childbirth|labor]], and can last for as long as three months.<ref>[http://www.emedicine.com/med/topic3408.htm eMedicine - Postpartum Depression : Article by Ruta M Nonacs<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> About two new mothers out of 1000 experience Postnatal [[Psychosis]], which includes hallucinations and/or delusions. | |||
===B. Sociological=== | |||
====Psychological Factors==== | |||
Low [[self-esteem]] and self-defeating or distorted thinking are connected with depression. However, it has been proposed that it is the result of depression and not necessarily the cause of it. This is still debated in the scientific community. Although it is not clear which is the cause and which is the effect, it is known that depressed persons who are able to make corrections in their thinking patterns can show improved mood and [[self-esteem]] ([[Cognitive Behavioral Therapy]]).<ref> http://www.nami.org/Template.cfm?Section=About_Treatments_and_Supports&template=/ContentManagement/ContentDisplay.cfm&ContentID=7952</ref> [[Psychology|Psychological]] factors related to depression include the complex development of one's [[personality]] and how one has learned to cope with external environmental factors, such as [[Stress (medicine)|stress]].<ref>http://www.apa.org/monitor/feb00/depression.html</ref> | |||
====Early Experiences==== | |||
Events such as the death of a parent, issues with biological development, school related problems, [[Child abandonment|abandonment]] or rejection, [[neglect]], chronic illness, and [[physical abuse|physical]], [[psychological abuse|psychological]], or [[sexual abuse]] can also increase the likelihood of depression later in life. [[Post-traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD) includes depression as one of its major symptoms.<ref>http://www.upliftprogram.com/article_ptsd.html</ref> | |||
====Life Experiences==== | |||
The following experiences or circumstances may trigger depression: | |||
* [[Divorce]] or the end of a serious relationship | |||
* [[Eating disorders]] | |||
* Financial difficulties or [[poverty]] | |||
* [[Gambling addiction]] | |||
* [[Grief]] over the death of a child, spouse, other family member or friends. | |||
* Job loss or [[unemployment]] | |||
* Loss of religious [[faith]]<ref>{{citation|title=The role of religion in depression|journal=Journal of Religion and Health|year=1972|publisher=Springer|author=NJC Andreasen}}</ref> | |||
* Ongoing major health problems | |||
* [[Rape]] | |||
* [[Sexual dysfunction|Sexual difficulties]] | |||
* [[Psychological trauma|Trauma]] | |||
* [[Workplace stress|Work-related stress]] | |||
To review causes for the development of [[Major depressive disorder due to another medical condition]], click [Substance or medication-induced depressive disorder|here]]. | |||
To review causes for the development of [[Substance/medication-induced major depressive disorder]], click [[Depressive disorder due to another medical condition|here]]. | |||
== | ==References== | ||
{{Reflist|2}} | |||
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{{WikiDoc Sources}} | |||
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[[Category:Disease]] | |||
[[Category:Psychiatry]] | |||
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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [2]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Aditya Govindavarjhulla, M.B.B.S. [3]
Overview
Current theories regarding the risk factors and causes of major depressive disorder can be broadly classified into two categories, Physiological and Sociopsychological.
Causes
Current theories regarding the risk factors and causes of major depressive disorder can be broadly classified into two categories, Physiological and Sociopsychological.
A. Physiological
Genetic Predisposition
The tendency to develop depression may be inherited: according to the National Institute of Mental Health[1] there is some evidence that depression may run in families. Most experts believe that both biological and psychological factors play a role.
Neurological
Many modern antidepressant drugs change levels of certain neurotransmitters, namely serotonin and norepinephrine (noradrenaline). However, the relationship between serotonin, SSRIs, and depression is typically greatly oversimplified when presented to the public, though this may be due to the lack of scientific knowledge regarding the mechanisms of action.[2] Evidence has shown the involvement of neurogenesis in depression, though the role is not exactly known. Recent research has suggested that there may be a link between depression and neurogenesis of the hippocampus.[3] This horseshoe-shaped structure is a center for both mood and memory. Loss of neurons in the hippocampus is found in depression and correlates with impaired memory and dysthymic mood. The most widely accepted explanation for this is that the drugs increase serotonin levels in the brain which in turn stimulate neurogenesis and therefore increase the total mass of the hippocampus and would in theory restore mood and memory, therefore assisting in the fight against the mood disorder.
In about one-third of individuals diagnosed with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), a disorder widely believed to be neurological and developmental, depression is recognized as comorbid.[4] Dysthymia, a form of chronic, low-level depression, is particularly common in adults with undiagnosed ADHD who have encountered years of frustrating ADHD-related problems with education, employment, and interpersonal relationships.[5]
New evidence shows that individuals with clinical depression exhibit markedly higher levels of monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A) in the brain compared to people without depression.[6] MAO-A is an enzyme which reacts with and decreases the concentration of monoamines such as serotonin, norephinephrine and dopamine.
Medical Conditions
Certain illnesses, including cardiovascular disease,[7] hepatitis, mononucleosis, hypothyroidism, fructose malabsorption,[8] sleep apnea, and organic brain damage caused by degenerative conditions such as Parkinson disease, Multiple Sclerosis or by traumatic blunt force injury may contribute to depression, as may certain prescription drugs such as hormonal contraception methods and steroids. Depression also occurs in patients with chronic pain, such as chronic back pain, much more frequently than in the general population. Fibromyalgia Syndrome sufferers also experience depression and anxiety. Dampness or mold in the home is associated with depression,[9] as is the frequent use of aerosols and air fresheners in the home.[10]
Dietary
Poor diet has been linked with depression. An imbalanced diet or a diet that does not provide enough calories can worsen or induce depression.
Excessive consumption of sugar has been proven to alter mood (causing a 'rush' or 'high', hyperactivity and subsequent deterioration of mood for exapmple, iritability), such consumption can be detrimental regarding the mood changes experienced in depressive conditions. Alcoholic beverages contain the psychoactive drug ethanol, a depressant; If included to a diet in large quantities, it can induce depression. If it is introduced into the diet of a person who is already a depressive, comparatively little can greatly worsen depression both in the short and longer term.[11]
Sleep Quality
Poor sleep quality co-occurs with major depression. Major depression leads to alterations in the function of the hypothalamus and pituitary causing excessive release of cortisol which can lead to poor sleep quality. Individuals suffering from major depression have been found to have an abnormal sleep architecture, often entering REM sleep sooner than usual, along with highly emotionally-charged dreaming. Antidepressant drugs, which often function as REM sleep suppressants, may serve to dampen abnormal REM activity and thus allow for a more restorative sleep to occur.
Seasonal Affective Disorder
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) is a type of depressive disorder that occurs in the winter when daylight hours are short. It is believed that the body's production of melatonin, which is produced at higher levels in the dark, plays a major part in the onset of SAD and that many sufferers respond well to bright light therapy, also known as phototherapy.[12]
Postpartum Depression
Postpartum depression refers to the intense, sustained and sometimes disabling depression experienced by women after giving birth. Postpartum depression, which has incidence rate of 10-15%, typically sets in within three months of labor, and can last for as long as three months.[13] About two new mothers out of 1000 experience Postnatal Psychosis, which includes hallucinations and/or delusions.
B. Sociological
Psychological Factors
Low self-esteem and self-defeating or distorted thinking are connected with depression. However, it has been proposed that it is the result of depression and not necessarily the cause of it. This is still debated in the scientific community. Although it is not clear which is the cause and which is the effect, it is known that depressed persons who are able to make corrections in their thinking patterns can show improved mood and self-esteem (Cognitive Behavioral Therapy).[14] Psychological factors related to depression include the complex development of one's personality and how one has learned to cope with external environmental factors, such as stress.[15]
Early Experiences
Events such as the death of a parent, issues with biological development, school related problems, abandonment or rejection, neglect, chronic illness, and physical, psychological, or sexual abuse can also increase the likelihood of depression later in life. Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) includes depression as one of its major symptoms.[16]
Life Experiences
The following experiences or circumstances may trigger depression:
- Divorce or the end of a serious relationship
- Eating disorders
- Financial difficulties or poverty
- Gambling addiction
- Grief over the death of a child, spouse, other family member or friends.
- Job loss or unemployment
- Loss of religious faith[17]
- Ongoing major health problems
- Rape
- Sexual difficulties
- Trauma
- Work-related stress
To review causes for the development of Major depressive disorder due to another medical condition, click [Substance or medication-induced depressive disorder|here]]. To review causes for the development of Substance/medication-induced major depressive disorder, click here.
References
- ↑ Genetic Link Found for Depression
- ↑ PLME0212_1211-1216.indd
- ↑ Dr Helen Mayberg, quoted in http://www.sciammind.com/article.cfm?&articleID=0002AD36-CF84-14C7-8DCC83414B7F0000 Scientific American, volume 17, number 4, pp. 26-31
- ↑ Hallowell, Edward M.; John J. Ratey (2005). Delivered from Distraction : Getting the Most out of Life with Attention Deficit Disorder. New York: Ballantine Books, p. 253–5. ISBN 0-345-44231-8.
- ↑ see Hallowell and Ratey, 2005
- ↑ Jeffrey H. Meyer, MD, PhD; Nathalie Ginovart, PhD; Anahita Boovariwala, BSc; Sandra Sagrati, BSc; Doug Hussey, BSc; Armando Garcia, BSc; Trevor Young, MD, PhD; Nicole Praschak-Rieder, MD; Alan A. Wilson, PhD; Sylvain Houle, MD, PhD, "Elevated Monoamine Oxidase A Levels in the Brain -- An Explanation for the Monoamine Imbalance of Major Depression," Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2006;63:1209-1216.[1]
- ↑ Manev, R (2004). "5-Lipoxygenase as a putative link between cardiovascular and psychiatric disorders". Critical Reviews in Neurobiology. 16 (1?2): 181?6. Unknown parameter
|coauthors=ignored (help) - ↑ Ledochowski M, Sperner-Unterweger B, Widner B, Fuchs D (1998). "Fructose malabsorption is associated with early signs of mental depression". Eur. J. Med. Res. 3 (6): 295–8. PMID 9620891.
- ↑ Dampness and Mold in the Home and Depression: An Examination of Mold-Related Illness and Perceived Control of One’s Home as Possible Depression Pathways Edmond D. Shenassa, ScD, Constantine Daskalakis, ScD, Allison Liebhaber, BA, Matthias Braubach, MPH and MaryJean Brown, ScD, RN October 2007, Vol 97, No. 10 | RESEARCH AND PRACTICE | American Journal of Public Health 1893-1899 © 2007 American Public Health Association DOI: 10.2105/AJPH.2006.093773 http://www.ajph.org/cgi/content/abstract/97/10/1893?HITS=10&sortspec=relevance&hits=10&author1=Edmond+Shenassa&maxtoshow=&FIRSTINDEX=0&resourcetype=HWCIT&searchid=1&RESULTFORMAT= PMID 17761567
- ↑ "Symptoms of mothers and infants related to total volatile organic compounds in household products" Arch Environ Health. 2003 Oct;58(10):633-41; PMID 15562635; "Air fresheners can make mothers and babies ill" University of Bristol press release issued 19 October 2004 http://www.bristol.ac.uk/news/2004/541
- ↑ http://www.emedicine.com/ped/topic2715.htm
- ↑ http://www.faqs.org/health/topics/0/Phototherapy.html
- ↑ eMedicine - Postpartum Depression : Article by Ruta M Nonacs
- ↑ http://www.nami.org/Template.cfm?Section=About_Treatments_and_Supports&template=/ContentManagement/ContentDisplay.cfm&ContentID=7952
- ↑ http://www.apa.org/monitor/feb00/depression.html
- ↑ http://www.upliftprogram.com/article_ptsd.html
- ↑ NJC Andreasen (1972), "The role of religion in depression", Journal of Religion and Health, Springer