Epidural hematoma causes: Difference between revisions

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==Overview==
==Overview==
Disease name] may be caused by [cause1], [cause2], or [cause3].
The leading cuase of epidural hematoma is [[Head trauma|head trauma.]] Other common causes of epidural hematoma include: Spinal [[trauma]], [[Bleeding disorders]], blood vessel [[malformation]], [[CNS]] surgery, [[Dengue virus|dengue virus infection]], [[Lumbar]] [[acupuncture]]<nowiki/>s, spinal injections, [[Metastatic cancer]], [[Sickle Cell Anemia|sickle cell anemia]] and [[Kummell disease|kummell's disease]].
 
OR
 
Common causes of [disease] include [cause1], [cause2], and [cause3].
 
OR
 
The most common cause of [disease name] is [cause 1]. Less common causes of [disease name] include [cause 2], [cause 3], and [cause 4].
 
OR
 
The cause of [disease name] has not been identified. To review risk factors for the development of [disease name], click [[Pericarditis causes#Overview|here]].


==Causes==
==Causes==
===Life-threatening Causes===
*Life-threatening causes include conditions which may result in death or permanent disability within 24 hours if left untreated. There are no life-threatening causes of [[disease name]], however complications resulting from untreated [[disease name]] is common.
*Life-threatening causes of [symptom/manifestation] include [cause1], [cause2], and [cause3].
*[Cause] is a life-threatening cause of [disease].


===Common Causes===
===Common Causes===
[Disease name] may be caused by:
* The leading cuase of epidural hematoma is [[Head trauma|Head trauma.]]<ref name="pmid15686177">{{cite journal| author=Mitsuyama T, Ide M, Kawamura H| title=Acute epidural hematoma caused by contrecoup head injury--case report. | journal=Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo) | year= 2004 | volume= 44 | issue= 11 | pages= 584-6 | pmid=15686177 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15686177  }} </ref><ref name="pmid26567227">{{cite journal| author=Maugeri R, Anderson DG, Graziano F, Meccio F, Visocchi M, Iacopino DG| title=Conservative vs. Surgical Management of Post-Traumatic Epidural Hematoma: A Case and Review of Literature. | journal=Am J Case Rep | year= 2015 | volume= 16 | issue=  | pages= 811-7 | pmid=26567227 | doi= | pmc=4652627 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26567227  }} </ref>
*[Cause1]
*[Cause2]
*[Cause3]


 
* Other common causes of epidural hematoma include:
OR
**Spinal [[trauma]]<ref name="pmid7110563">{{cite journal| author=Foo D, Rossier AB| title=Post-traumatic spinal epidural hematoma. | journal=Neurosurgery | year= 1982 | volume= 11 | issue= 1 Pt 1 | pages= 25-32 | pmid=7110563 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=7110563  }} </ref>
 
**[[Bleeding disorders]]<ref name="pmid20221963">{{cite journal| author=Morsing IE, Brons P, Th Draaisma JM, van Lindert EJ, Erasmus CE| title=Hemophilia a and spinal epidural hematoma in children. | journal=Neuropediatrics | year= 2009 | volume= 40 | issue= 5 | pages= 245-8 | pmid=20221963 | doi=10.1055/s-0030-1248247 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20221963  }} </ref>
 
**Blood vessel [[malformation]]<ref name="pmid23812629">{{cite journal| author=Paraskevopoulos D, Magras I, Polyzoidis K| title=Spontaneous spinal epidural hematoma secondary to extradural arteriovenous malformation in a child: a case-based update. | journal=Childs Nerv Syst | year= 2013 | volume= 29 | issue= 11 | pages= 1985-91 | pmid=23812629 | doi=10.1007/s00381-013-2214-5 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23812629  }} </ref>
*[Disease name] is caused by an infection with [pathogen name].
**[[CNS]] surgery<ref name="pmid21165315">{{cite journal| author=Kim B, Moon SH, Kim SY, Kim HJ, Lee HM| title=Delayed Spinal Epidural Hematoma after En Block Spondylectomy for Vertebral Ewing's Sarcoma. | journal=Asian Spine J | year= 2010 | volume= 4 | issue= 2 | pages= 118-22 | pmid=21165315 | doi=10.4184/asj.2010.4.2.118 | pmc=2996623 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21165315  }} </ref>
*[Pathogen name] is caused by [pathogen name].


===Less Common Causes===
===Less Common Causes===
Less common causes of [[disease name]] include:
Less common causes of epidural hematoma include:
*[Cause1]
*[[Dengue virus|Dengue virus infection]]<ref name="pmid26900103">{{cite journal| author=Fong CY, Hlaing CS, Tay CG, Kadir KA, Goh KJ, Ong LC| title=Longitudinal extensive transverse myelitis with cervical epidural haematoma following dengue virus infection. | journal=Eur J Paediatr Neurol | year= 2016 | volume= 20 | issue= 3 | pages= 449-53 | pmid=26900103 | doi=10.1016/j.ejpn.2016.01.012 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26900103  }} </ref>
*[Cause2]
*[[Lumbar]] [[acupuncture]]<nowiki/>s<ref name="pmid9226976">{{cite journal| author=Chen CY, Liu GC, Sheu RS, Huang CL| title=Bacterial meningitis and lumbar epidural hematoma due to lumbar acupunctures: a case report. | journal=Kaohsiung J Med Sci | year= 1997 | volume= 13 | issue= 5 | pages= 328-31 | pmid=9226976 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=9226976  }} </ref>
*[Cause3]
*Spinal injections<ref name="pmid15041581">{{cite journal| author=Rosen DA, Hawkinberry DW, Rosen KR, Gustafson RA, Hogg JP, Broadman LM| title=An epidural hematoma in an adolescent patient after cardiac surgery. | journal=Anesth Analg | year= 2004 | volume= 98 | issue= 4 | pages= 966-9, table of contents | pmid=15041581 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=15041581  }} </ref><ref name="pmid22220233">{{cite journal| author=Bang J, Kim JU, Lee YM, Joh J, An EH, Lee JY et al.| title=Spinal epidural hematoma related to an epidural catheter in a cardiac surgery patient -A case report-. | journal=Korean J Anesthesiol | year= 2011 | volume= 61 | issue= 6 | pages= 524-7 | pmid=22220233 | doi=10.4097/kjae.2011.61.6.524 | pmc=3249578 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22220233  }} </ref>
*[[Metastatic cancer]]<ref name="pmid9952124">{{cite journal| author=Simmons NE, Elias WJ, Henson SL, Laws ER| title=Small cell lung carcinoma causing epidural hematoma: case report. | journal=Surg Neurol | year= 1999 | volume= 51 | issue= 1 | pages= 56-9 | pmid=9952124 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=9952124  }} </ref>


===Genetic Causes===
*[[Sickle Cell Anemia|Sickle cell anemia]]<ref name="pmid23741596">{{cite journal| author=Babatola BO, Salman YA, Abiola AM, Okezie KO, Oladele AS| title=Spontaneous epidural haematoma in sickle cell anaemia: case report and literature review. | journal=J Surg Tech Case Rep | year= 2012 | volume= 4 | issue= 2 | pages= 135-7 | pmid=23741596 | doi=10.4103/2006-8808.110271 | pmc=3673360 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23741596  }} </ref><ref name="pmid26576305">{{cite journal| author=Yogarajah M, Agu CC, Sivasambu B, Mittler MA| title=HbSC Disease and Spontaneous Epidural Hematoma with Kernohan's Notch Phenomena. | journal=Case Rep Hematol | year= 2015 | volume= 2015 | issue=  | pages= 470873 | pmid=26576305 | doi=10.1155/2015/470873 | pmc=4631867 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=26576305  }} </ref>
*[Disease name] is caused by a mutation in the [gene name] gene.
*[[Kummell disease|Kummell's disease]]<ref name="pmid21607183">{{cite journal| author=Kim HS, Lee SK, Kim SW, Shin H| title=Chronic Spinal Epidural Hematoma Related to Kummell's Disease. | journal=J Korean Neurosurg Soc | year= 2011 | volume= 49 | issue= 4 | pages= 231-3 | pmid=21607183 | doi=10.3340/jkns.2011.49.4.231 | pmc=3098428 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21607183  }} </ref>


===Causes by Organ System===
===Causes by Organ System===


{|style="width:80%; height:100px" border="1"
{| style="width:80%; height:100px" border="1"
|style="height:100px"; style="width:25%" border="1" bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" |'''Cardiovascular'''
| style="width:25%" bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" ; border="1" |'''Cardiovascular'''
|style="height:100px"; style="width:75%" border="1" bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
| style="width:75%" bgcolor="Beige" ; border="1" | Blood vessel [[malformation]]
|-
|-
|bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"| '''Chemical/Poisoning'''
| bgcolor="LightSteelBlue" | '''Chemical/Poisoning'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Dental'''
| '''Dental'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Dermatologic'''
| '''Dermatologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Drug Side Effect'''
| '''Drug Side Effect'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Ear Nose Throat'''
| '''Ear Nose Throat'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Endocrine'''
| '''Endocrine'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Environmental'''
| '''Environmental'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Gastroenterologic'''
| '''Gastroenterologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Genetic'''
| '''Genetic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Hematologic'''
| '''Hematologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Iatrogenic'''
| '''Iatrogenic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" |
* [[Head trauma]]
* Spinal [[trauma]]
 
* [[Lumbar]] [[acupuncture]]
* Spinal injections
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Infectious Disease'''
| '''Infectious Disease'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Dengue virus|Dengue virus infection]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Musculoskeletal/Orthopedic'''
| '''Musculoskeletal/Orthopedic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | [[Kummell disease|Kummell's disease]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Neurologic'''
| '''Neurologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" |
* [[CNS]] surgery
* Spinal [[trauma]]
* [[Head trauma|Head trauma]]
* [[Lumbar|Lumbar]] [[acupuncture]]
* Spinal injections
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Nutritional/Metabolic'''
| '''Nutritional/Metabolic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Obstetric/Gynecologic'''
| '''Obstetric/Gynecologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Oncologic'''
| '''Oncologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" |
* [[Bleeding disorders]]
* [[Metastatic cancer]]
* [[Sickle Cell Anemia|Sickle cell anemia]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Ophthalmologic'''
| '''Ophthalmologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Overdose/Toxicity'''
| '''Overdose/Toxicity'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Psychiatric'''
| '''Psychiatric'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Pulmonary'''
| '''Pulmonary'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Renal/Electrolyte'''
| '''Renal/Electrolyte'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Rheumatology/Immunology/Allergy'''
| '''Rheumatology/Immunology/Allergy'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Sexual'''
| '''Sexual'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Trauma'''
| '''Trauma'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" |
* [[Head trauma]]
* Spinal [[trauma]]
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Urologic'''
| '''Urologic'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|-bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
|- bgcolor="LightSteelBlue"
| '''Miscellaneous'''
| '''Miscellaneous'''
|bgcolor="Beige"| No underlying causes
| bgcolor="Beige" | No underlying causes
|-
|-
|}
|}
===Causes in Alphabetical Order===
List the causes of the disease in alphabetical order.
{{columns-list|3|
* Cause 1
* Cause 2
* Cause 3
* Cause 4
* Cause 5
* Cause 6
* Cause 7
* Cause 8
* Cause 9
* Cause 10
}}
==References==
==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
{{Reflist|2}}

Latest revision as of 15:15, 14 June 2018

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Mohamadmostafa Jahansouz M.D.[2]

Overview

The leading cuase of epidural hematoma is head trauma. Other common causes of epidural hematoma include: Spinal trauma, Bleeding disorders, blood vessel malformation, CNS surgery, dengue virus infection, Lumbar acupunctures, spinal injections, Metastatic cancer, sickle cell anemia and kummell's disease.

Causes

Common Causes

Less Common Causes

Less common causes of epidural hematoma include:

Causes by Organ System

Cardiovascular Blood vessel malformation
Chemical/Poisoning No underlying causes
Dental No underlying causes
Dermatologic No underlying causes
Drug Side Effect No underlying causes
Ear Nose Throat No underlying causes
Endocrine No underlying causes
Environmental No underlying causes
Gastroenterologic No underlying causes
Genetic No underlying causes
Hematologic No underlying causes
Iatrogenic
Infectious Disease Dengue virus infection
Musculoskeletal/Orthopedic Kummell's disease
Neurologic
Nutritional/Metabolic No underlying causes
Obstetric/Gynecologic No underlying causes
Oncologic
Ophthalmologic No underlying causes
Overdose/Toxicity No underlying causes
Psychiatric No underlying causes
Pulmonary No underlying causes
Renal/Electrolyte No underlying causes
Rheumatology/Immunology/Allergy No underlying causes
Sexual No underlying causes
Trauma
Urologic No underlying causes
Miscellaneous No underlying causes

References

  1. ↑ Mitsuyama T, Ide M, Kawamura H (2004). "Acute epidural hematoma caused by contrecoup head injury--case report". Neurol Med Chir (Tokyo). 44 (11): 584–6. PMID 15686177.
  2. ↑ Maugeri R, Anderson DG, Graziano F, Meccio F, Visocchi M, Iacopino DG (2015). "Conservative vs. Surgical Management of Post-Traumatic Epidural Hematoma: A Case and Review of Literature". Am J Case Rep. 16: 811–7. PMC 4652627. PMID 26567227.
  3. ↑ Foo D, Rossier AB (1982). "Post-traumatic spinal epidural hematoma". Neurosurgery. 11 (1 Pt 1): 25–32. PMID 7110563.
  4. ↑ Morsing IE, Brons P, Th Draaisma JM, van Lindert EJ, Erasmus CE (2009). "Hemophilia a and spinal epidural hematoma in children". Neuropediatrics. 40 (5): 245–8. doi:10.1055/s-0030-1248247. PMID 20221963.
  5. ↑ Paraskevopoulos D, Magras I, Polyzoidis K (2013). "Spontaneous spinal epidural hematoma secondary to extradural arteriovenous malformation in a child: a case-based update". Childs Nerv Syst. 29 (11): 1985–91. doi:10.1007/s00381-013-2214-5. PMID 23812629.
  6. ↑ Kim B, Moon SH, Kim SY, Kim HJ, Lee HM (2010). "Delayed Spinal Epidural Hematoma after En Block Spondylectomy for Vertebral Ewing's Sarcoma". Asian Spine J. 4 (2): 118–22. doi:10.4184/asj.2010.4.2.118. PMC 2996623. PMID 21165315.
  7. ↑ Fong CY, Hlaing CS, Tay CG, Kadir KA, Goh KJ, Ong LC (2016). "Longitudinal extensive transverse myelitis with cervical epidural haematoma following dengue virus infection". Eur J Paediatr Neurol. 20 (3): 449–53. doi:10.1016/j.ejpn.2016.01.012. PMID 26900103.
  8. ↑ Chen CY, Liu GC, Sheu RS, Huang CL (1997). "Bacterial meningitis and lumbar epidural hematoma due to lumbar acupunctures: a case report". Kaohsiung J Med Sci. 13 (5): 328–31. PMID 9226976.
  9. ↑ Rosen DA, Hawkinberry DW, Rosen KR, Gustafson RA, Hogg JP, Broadman LM (2004). "An epidural hematoma in an adolescent patient after cardiac surgery". Anesth Analg. 98 (4): 966–9, table of contents. PMID 15041581.
  10. ↑ Bang J, Kim JU, Lee YM, Joh J, An EH, Lee JY; et al. (2011). "Spinal epidural hematoma related to an epidural catheter in a cardiac surgery patient -A case report-". Korean J Anesthesiol. 61 (6): 524–7. doi:10.4097/kjae.2011.61.6.524. PMC 3249578. PMID 22220233.
  11. ↑ Simmons NE, Elias WJ, Henson SL, Laws ER (1999). "Small cell lung carcinoma causing epidural hematoma: case report". Surg Neurol. 51 (1): 56–9. PMID 9952124.
  12. ↑ Babatola BO, Salman YA, Abiola AM, Okezie KO, Oladele AS (2012). "Spontaneous epidural haematoma in sickle cell anaemia: case report and literature review". J Surg Tech Case Rep. 4 (2): 135–7. doi:10.4103/2006-8808.110271. PMC 3673360. PMID 23741596.
  13. ↑ Yogarajah M, Agu CC, Sivasambu B, Mittler MA (2015). "HbSC Disease and Spontaneous Epidural Hematoma with Kernohan's Notch Phenomena". Case Rep Hematol. 2015: 470873. doi:10.1155/2015/470873. PMC 4631867. PMID 26576305.
  14. ↑ Kim HS, Lee SK, Kim SW, Shin H (2011). "Chronic Spinal Epidural Hematoma Related to Kummell's Disease". J Korean Neurosurg Soc. 49 (4): 231–3. doi:10.3340/jkns.2011.49.4.231. PMC 3098428. PMID 21607183.

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