Sandbox: Breast Abscess: Difference between revisions

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==Overview==
==Overview==
==Historic Perspective==
==Historic Perspective==
In 1841, Dr. Jonathan Toogood reported a case of breast abscess out of only 5 cases at this time.<ref name="pmid21379654">{{cite journal| author=Toogood J| title=On Deep-Seated Abscess of the Breast. | journal=Prov Med Surg J (1840) | year= 1841 | volume= 2 | issue= 47 | pages= 418-9 | pmid=21379654 | doi= | pmc=2489248 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21379654  }} </ref>
==Classification==
==Classification==
Breast Abscess may be classified according to anatomical location and lactation state of the patient into subtypes.<ref name="pmid7755694">{{cite journal| author=Dixon JM| title=ABC of breast diseases. Breast infection. | journal=BMJ | year= 1994 | volume= 309 | issue= 6959 | pages= 946-9 | pmid=7755694 | doi= | pmc=2541130 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=7755694  }} </ref>
[[Breast]] [[Abscess]] may be classified according to anatomical location and lactation state of the patient into subtypes.<ref name="pmid7755694">{{cite journal| author=Dixon JM| title=ABC of breast diseases. Breast infection. | journal=BMJ | year= 1994 | volume= 309 | issue= 6959 | pages= 946-9 | pmid=7755694 | doi= | pmc=2541130 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=7755694  }} </ref>


*Anatomical location: subcutaneous, subareolar, interlobular, central and retromammary
*Anatomical location: [[subcutaneous]], [[Subareolar abscess|subareolar]], interlobular, central and [[retromammary]]
*[[Lactation]] state: Lactational and Non-Lactational.
*[[Lactation]] state: Lactational and Non-Lactational.


==Pathophysiology==
==Pathophysiology==
Following untreated [[mastitis]], breast [[abscess]] could occur.  
Following untreated [[mastitis]], breast [[abscess]] could occur.  
[[Breast|Breas]]<nowiki/>t [[abscess]] is usually caused by [[staphylococcus aureus]] bacterial infection to an injured breast skin. Staphylococcus aureus could form abscess by secretion of several killing agents like enzymes and toxins. In a reaction to these bacterial substances, assembled white blood cells in this tissue produces anti-bacterial anti-bodies that help in killing the bacteria. However, these cells cause damage to the soft tissue contributing in the abscess formation.  
[[Breast|Breas]]<nowiki/>t [[abscess]] is usually caused by [[staphylococcus aureus]] bacterial infection to an injured breast skin. [[Staphylococcus aureus]] could form [[abscess]] by secretion of several killing agents like [[enzymes]] and [[toxins]]. In a reaction to these bacterial substances, assembled white blood cells in this tissue produces anti-bacterial anti-bodies that help in killing the [[bacteria]]. However, these cells cause damage to the soft tissue contributing in the [[abscess]] formation.  
As the breast abscess is the complicated form of mastitis, the pathophysiology is mostly like the [[mastitis pathophysiology]].<ref name="pmid25749135">{{cite journal| author=Kobayashi SD, Malachowa N, DeLeo FR| title=Pathogenesis of Staphylococcus aureus abscesses. | journal=Am J Pathol | year= 2015 | volume= 185 | issue= 6 | pages= 1518-27 | pmid=25749135 | doi=10.1016/j.ajpath.2014.11.030 | pmc=4450319 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25749135  }} </ref>  
As the breast abscess is the complicated form of [[mastitis]], the pathophysiology is mostly like the [[mastitis pathophysiology]].<ref name="pmid25749135">{{cite journal| author=Kobayashi SD, Malachowa N, DeLeo FR| title=Pathogenesis of Staphylococcus aureus abscesses. | journal=Am J Pathol | year= 2015 | volume= 185 | issue= 6 | pages= 1518-27 | pmid=25749135 | doi=10.1016/j.ajpath.2014.11.030 | pmc=4450319 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=25749135  }} </ref>  
   
   
===Pathogenesis===  
===Pathogenesis===  
Breast abscess is the result of underlying inflammation ([[mastitis]]) in the breast skin. Injury may happen either during the lactation process from the infant or in the non-lactaion state of the patient as a cracking in the breast skin. This injury accelerates the entry of the causative bacteria which by its role form the abscess. <ref name="pmid24465097">{{cite journal| author=Kataria K, Srivastava A, Dhar A| title=Management of lactational mastitis and breast abscesses: review of current knowledge and practice. | journal=Indian J Surg | year= 2013 | volume= 75 | issue= 6 | pages= 430-5 | pmid=24465097 | doi=10.1007/s12262-012-0776-1 | pmc=3900741 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24465097  }} </ref><br>In neglected cases, there may be necrosis in the abscess location leads to fibrosis, scarring and nipple retraction.  
[[Breast abscess]] is the result of underlying [[inflammation]] ([[mastitis]]) in the breast skin. Injury may happen either during the [[lactation]] process from the infant or in the [[non-lactaion]] state of the patient as a cracking in the breast skin. This injury accelerates the entry of the causative bacteria which by its role form the abscess. <ref name="pmid24465097">{{cite journal| author=Kataria K, Srivastava A, Dhar A| title=Management of lactational mastitis and breast abscesses: review of current knowledge and practice. | journal=Indian J Surg | year= 2013 | volume= 75 | issue= 6 | pages= 430-5 | pmid=24465097 | doi=10.1007/s12262-012-0776-1 | pmc=3900741 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24465097  }} </ref><br>In neglected cases, there may be [[necrosis]] in the abscess location leads to [[fibrosis]], scarring and [[nipple retraction]].  


*'''Lactational''':  
*'''Lactational''':  
**Injured breast skin allows the entrance of the bacteria to the mammillary ducts. This bacteria can be from the infant or the mother herself. Overproduction of the breast milk with no flow to the infant forms an opportunistic field for the bacteria to cause infection.<ref name="pmid11892876">{{cite journal| author=Marchant DJ| title=Inflammation of the breast. | journal=Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am | year= 2002 | volume= 29 | issue= 1 | pages= 89-102 | pmid=11892876 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11892876  }} </ref>
**Injured [[breast]] skin allows the entrance of the [[bacteria]] to the mammillary ducts. This bacteria can be from the infant or the mother herself. Overproduction of the breast milk with no flow to the infant forms an opportunistic field for the bacteria to cause [[infection]].<ref name="pmid11892876">{{cite journal| author=Marchant DJ| title=Inflammation of the breast. | journal=Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am | year= 2002 | volume= 29 | issue= 1 | pages= 89-102 | pmid=11892876 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11892876  }} </ref>
**[[Duct ectasia of breast|Breast Duct Ectasia]]: metaplastic change of the duct cells can cause duct ectasia. This change causes widening of the ducts lining which leads to thickening of the ducts and obstruction. The ducts become filled with fluid which leads to nipple discharge and infection by the entrance of the bacteria and can form pus and abscess as a final result. <ref name="pmid4041720">{{cite journal| author=Bundred NJ, Dixon JM, Lumsden AB, Radford D, Hood J, Miles RS et al.| title=Are the lesions of duct ectasia sterile? | journal=Br J Surg | year= 1985 | volume= 72 | issue= 10 | pages= 844-5 | pmid=4041720 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=4041720  }} </ref>
**[[Duct ectasia of breast|Breast Duct Ectasia]]: metaplastic change of the duct cells can cause [[Duct ectasia of breast|duct ectasia]]. This change causes widening of the ducts lining which leads to thickening of the ducts and obstruction. The ducts become filled with fluid which leads to nipple discharge and infection by the entrance of the bacteria and can form pus and abscess as a final result. <ref name="pmid4041720">{{cite journal| author=Bundred NJ, Dixon JM, Lumsden AB, Radford D, Hood J, Miles RS et al.| title=Are the lesions of duct ectasia sterile? | journal=Br J Surg | year= 1985 | volume= 72 | issue= 10 | pages= 844-5 | pmid=4041720 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=4041720  }} </ref>


*'''Non-Lactional''':  
*'''Non-Lactional''':  
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===Associated Diseases===
===Associated Diseases===
More common in patients of diabetes mellitus.
There is no associated diseases with breast abscess.
 
===Gross Pathology===
 
===Microscopic Pathology===


==Causes==  
==Causes==  
Breast abscess is a bacterial infectious disease that is caused by many bacterial pathogens and it may also be caused by fungi mostly common candida through the infant mouth. It is almost caused by the same pathogens causing mastitis. To understand the common species causing breast abscess we can classify them into gram +ve and gram -ve bacteria. <ref name="pmid20443790">{{cite journal| author=Dabbas N, Chand M, Pallett A, Royle GT, Sainsbury R| title=Have the organisms that cause breast abscess changed with time?--Implications for appropriate antibiotic usage in primary and secondary care. | journal=Breast J | year= 2010 | volume= 16 | issue= 4 | pages= 412-5 | pmid=20443790 | doi=10.1111/j.1524-4741.2010.00923.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20443790  }} </ref><ref name="pmid23345385">{{cite journal| author=Kaneda HJ, Mack J, Kasales CJ, Schetter S| title=Pediatric and adolescent breast masses: a review of pathophysiology, imaging, diagnosis, and treatment. | journal=AJR Am J Roentgenol | year= 2013 | volume= 200 | issue= 2 | pages= W204-12 | pmid=23345385 | doi=10.2214/AJR.12.9560 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23345385  }} </ref><ref name="pmid8268353">{{cite journal| author=Surani S, Chandna H, Weinstein RA| title=Breast abscess: coagulase-negative staphylococcus as a sole pathogen. | journal=Clin Infect Dis | year= 1993 | volume= 17 | issue= 4 | pages= 701-4 | pmid=8268353 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8268353  }} </ref>
[[Breast abscess]] is a bacterial infectious disease that is caused by many bacterial pathogens and it may also be caused by fungi mostly common [[candida]] through the infant mouth. It is almost caused by the same pathogens causing [[Mastitis (domestic animals)|mastitis.]] To understand the common species causing breast abscess we can classify them into [[Gram positive bacteria|gram +ve]] and [[Gram-negative bacteria|gram -ve]] bacteria. <ref name="pmid20443790">{{cite journal| author=Dabbas N, Chand M, Pallett A, Royle GT, Sainsbury R| title=Have the organisms that cause breast abscess changed with time?--Implications for appropriate antibiotic usage in primary and secondary care. | journal=Breast J | year= 2010 | volume= 16 | issue= 4 | pages= 412-5 | pmid=20443790 | doi=10.1111/j.1524-4741.2010.00923.x | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20443790  }} </ref><ref name="pmid23345385">{{cite journal| author=Kaneda HJ, Mack J, Kasales CJ, Schetter S| title=Pediatric and adolescent breast masses: a review of pathophysiology, imaging, diagnosis, and treatment. | journal=AJR Am J Roentgenol | year= 2013 | volume= 200 | issue= 2 | pages= W204-12 | pmid=23345385 | doi=10.2214/AJR.12.9560 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23345385  }} </ref><ref name="pmid8268353">{{cite journal| author=Surani S, Chandna H, Weinstein RA| title=Breast abscess: coagulase-negative staphylococcus as a sole pathogen. | journal=Clin Infect Dis | year= 1993 | volume= 17 | issue= 4 | pages= 701-4 | pmid=8268353 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=8268353  }} </ref>


{{Family tree/start}}  
{{Family tree/start}}  
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==Differentiating Breast abscess from other Diseases==
==Differentiating Breast abscess from other Diseases==
Breast abscess should be differentiated from other diseases that cause swelling in the breast skin. These diseases are like breast mass, mastitis, galactocele, plugged duct and Mondor's syndrome.<ref name="pmid16713771">{{cite journal| author=Greydanus DE, Matytsina L, Gains M| title=Breast disorders in children and adolescents. | journal=Prim Care | year= 2006 | volume= 33 | issue= 2 | pages= 455-502 | pmid=16713771 | doi=10.1016/j.pop.2006.02.002 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16713771  }} </ref><ref name="pmid23450563">{{cite journal| author=Jahanfar S, Ng CJ, Teng CL| title=Antibiotics for mastitis in breastfeeding women. | journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev | year= 2013 | volume=  | issue= 2 | pages= CD005458 | pmid=23450563 | doi=10.1002/14651858.CD005458.pub3 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23450563  }} </ref> <ref name="pmid24791941">{{cite journal| author=Lam E, Chan T, Wiseman SM| title=Breast abscess: evidence based management recommendations. | journal=Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther | year= 2014 | volume= 12 | issue= 7 | pages= 753-62 | pmid=24791941 | doi=10.1586/14787210.2014.913982 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24791941  }} </ref><ref name="pmid11250736">{{cite journal| author=Kleer CG, van Golen KL, Merajver SD| title=Molecular biology of breast cancer metastasis. Inflammatory breast cancer: clinical syndrome and molecular determinants. | journal=Breast Cancer Res | year= 2000 | volume= 2 | issue= 6 | pages= 423-9 | pmid=11250736 | doi=10.1186/bcr89 | pmc=138665 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11250736  }} </ref><ref name="pmid20603440">{{cite journal| author=Dawood S, Merajver SD, Viens P, Vermeulen PB, Swain SM, Buchholz TA et al.| title=International expert panel on inflammatory breast cancer: consensus statement for standardized diagnosis and treatment. | journal=Ann Oncol | year= 2011 | volume= 22 | issue= 3 | pages= 515-23 | pmid=20603440 | doi=10.1093/annonc/mdq345 | pmc=3105293 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20603440  }} </ref><ref name="pmid1588366">{{cite journal| author=Jaiyesimi IA, Buzdar AU, Hortobagyi G| title=Inflammatory breast cancer: a review. | journal=J Clin Oncol | year= 1992 | volume= 10 | issue= 6 | pages= 1014-24 | pmid=1588366 | doi=10.1200/JCO.1992.10.6.1014 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=1588366  }} </ref>
[[Breast abscess]] should be differentiated from other diseases that cause swelling in the breast skin. These diseases are like [[mastitis]], [[inflammatory breast cancer]], [[galactocele]], [[plugged duct]], [[Mondor's syndrome]] and [[fibroadenoma]].<ref name="pmid16713771">{{cite journal| author=Greydanus DE, Matytsina L, Gains M| title=Breast disorders in children and adolescents. | journal=Prim Care | year= 2006 | volume= 33 | issue= 2 | pages= 455-502 | pmid=16713771 | doi=10.1016/j.pop.2006.02.002 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16713771  }} </ref><ref name="pmid23450563">{{cite journal| author=Jahanfar S, Ng CJ, Teng CL| title=Antibiotics for mastitis in breastfeeding women. | journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev | year= 2013 | volume=  | issue= 2 | pages= CD005458 | pmid=23450563 | doi=10.1002/14651858.CD005458.pub3 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23450563  }} </ref> <ref name="pmid24791941">{{cite journal| author=Lam E, Chan T, Wiseman SM| title=Breast abscess: evidence based management recommendations. | journal=Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther | year= 2014 | volume= 12 | issue= 7 | pages= 753-62 | pmid=24791941 | doi=10.1586/14787210.2014.913982 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24791941  }} </ref><ref name="pmid11250736">{{cite journal| author=Kleer CG, van Golen KL, Merajver SD| title=Molecular biology of breast cancer metastasis. Inflammatory breast cancer: clinical syndrome and molecular determinants. | journal=Breast Cancer Res | year= 2000 | volume= 2 | issue= 6 | pages= 423-9 | pmid=11250736 | doi=10.1186/bcr89 | pmc=138665 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11250736  }} </ref><ref name="pmid20603440">{{cite journal| author=Dawood S, Merajver SD, Viens P, Vermeulen PB, Swain SM, Buchholz TA et al.| title=International expert panel on inflammatory breast cancer: consensus statement for standardized diagnosis and treatment. | journal=Ann Oncol | year= 2011 | volume= 22 | issue= 3 | pages= 515-23 | pmid=20603440 | doi=10.1093/annonc/mdq345 | pmc=3105293 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20603440  }} </ref><ref name="pmid1588366">{{cite journal| author=Jaiyesimi IA, Buzdar AU, Hortobagyi G| title=Inflammatory breast cancer: a review. | journal=J Clin Oncol | year= 1992 | volume= 10 | issue= 6 | pages= 1014-24 | pmid=1588366 | doi=10.1200/JCO.1992.10.6.1014 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=1588366 }} </ref><ref name="pmid17126205">{{cite journal| author=Indelicato DJ, Grobmyer SR, Newlin H, Morris CG, Haigh LS, Copeland EM et al.| title=Delayed breast cellulitis: an evolving complication of breast conservation. | journal=Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys | year= 2006 | volume= 66 | issue= 5 | pages= 1339-46 | pmid=17126205 | doi=10.1016/j.ijrobp.2006.07.1388 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17126205  }} </ref><ref name="pmid21855258">{{cite journal| author=Belleflamme M, Penaloza A, Thoma M, Hainaut P, Thys F| title=Mondor disease: a case report in ED. | journal=Am J Emerg Med | year= 2012 | volume= 30 | issue= 7 | pages= 1325.e1-3 | pmid=21855258 | doi=10.1016/j.ajem.2011.06.031 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21855258  }} </ref><ref name="pmid11566698">{{cite journal| author=Shetty MK, Watson AB| title=Mondor's disease of the breast: sonographic and mammographic findings. | journal=AJR Am J Roentgenol | year= 2001 | volume= 177 | issue= 4 | pages= 893-6 | pmid=11566698 | doi=10.2214/ajr.177.4.1770893 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=11566698  }} </ref><ref name="pmid23959419">{{cite journal| author=Kadioglu H, Yildiz S, Ersoy YE, Yücel S, Müslümanoğlu M| title=An unusual case caused by a common reason: Mondor's disease by oral contraceptives. | journal=Int J Surg Case Rep | year= 2013 | volume= 4 | issue= 10 | pages= 855-7 | pmid=23959419 | doi=10.1016/j.ijscr.2013.07.026 | pmc=3785854 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23959419 }} </ref>


{|
{|
|-style="background: #4479BA; color: #FFFFFF; text-align: center;"
|-style="background: #4479BA; color: #FFFFFF; text-align: center;"
! rowspan="2" |Diseases
! rowspan="2" |Diseases
! colspan="4" |Laboratory Findings
! colspan="2" |Laboratory Findings
! colspan="4" |Physical Examination
! colspan="3" |Physical Examination
! colspan="8" |History and Symptoms
! colspan="8" |History and Symptoms
! rowspan="2" |Other Findings
! rowspan="2" |Other Findings
|-style="background: #4479BA; color: #FFFFFF; text-align: center;"
|-style="background: #4479BA; color: #FFFFFF; text-align: center;"
!CBC
!Culture of the discharge
!Culture
!Biopsy
!Biopsy
!Lab Test 4
!Mass
!Breast tenderness
!Breast tenderness
!Skin induration
!Skin induration
!Physical Finding 4
!Cordlike vein appearance
!History of trauma
!History of trauma
!Nipple retraction
!Nipple retraction
Line 76: Line 71:
!Itching
!Itching
|-
|-
|style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |Mastitis
|style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |Breast abscess
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✘
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✘
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✘
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✘
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✘
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" | + Bacterial culture
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✘
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✘
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|-
|style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |Mastitis
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✘
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|✘
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✘
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✘
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|✘
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✘
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|-
|-
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |Inflammatory breast cancer
| style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |Inflammatory breast cancer
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✘
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✘
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✘
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
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| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✘
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✘
|✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✘
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✘
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✘
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✘
|✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |*Peau d' orange appearance of the skin
| style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |*Peau d' orange appearance of the skin
<nowiki>*</nowiki>Metastasis is common.
<nowiki>*</nowiki>Metastasis is common.
|-
|-
|style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |Galactocele
|style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |Galactocele
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✘
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✘
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✘
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✘
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |It is differentiated from other masses by US.
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|
|
|
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|-
|-
|style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |Plugged duct
|style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |Plugged duct
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✘
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✘
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✘
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
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|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✘
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
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|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |Retracted breast skin and elevation of the skin may be observed.
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|
|
|
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|-
|-
|style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |Cellulitis  
|style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |Cellulitis  
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✘
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|
|
|
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|-
|-
|style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |Fibroadenoma  
|style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |Fibroadenoma  
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✘
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✘
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✘
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✘
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✘
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |✔
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |*Peau d' orange skin apperance.
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
<nowiki>*</nowiki>Enlarged veins on the skin
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|
|
|
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|
|-
|style="background: #DCDCDC; padding: 5px; text-align: center;" |Lipoma
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|style="background: #F5F5F5; padding: 5px;" |
|
|-
|
|}
|}
Other differential diagnosis of breast abscess can include:
*[[Cystosarcoma phyllodes]]
*[[Breast cyst]]
*[[Breast carcinoma]]
*[[Lymphangioma]]
*[[Hemangioma]]
*[[Lipoma]]


==Epidemiology and Demographics==
==Epidemiology and Demographics==
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*Smoking: increases the chances of abscess recurrence.<ref name="pmid20610247">{{cite journal| author=Gollapalli V, Liao J, Dudakovic A, Sugg SL, Scott-Conner CE, Weigel RJ| title=Risk factors for development and recurrence of primary breast abscesses. | journal=J Am Coll Surg | year= 2010 | volume= 211 | issue= 1 | pages= 41-8 | pmid=20610247 | doi=10.1016/j.jamcollsurg.2010.04.007 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20610247  }} </ref>
*Smoking: increases the chances of abscess recurrence.<ref name="pmid20610247">{{cite journal| author=Gollapalli V, Liao J, Dudakovic A, Sugg SL, Scott-Conner CE, Weigel RJ| title=Risk factors for development and recurrence of primary breast abscesses. | journal=J Am Coll Surg | year= 2010 | volume= 211 | issue= 1 | pages= 41-8 | pmid=20610247 | doi=10.1016/j.jamcollsurg.2010.04.007 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20610247  }} </ref>
*Obesity
*Obesity
*Diabetes mellitus  
*[[Diabetes mellitus]]
*Duct ectasia of the breast.  
*[[Duct ectasia of the breast|Duct ectasia of the breast.]]
*Local skin infection
*[[Local skin infection]]


===Less common risk factors===
===Less common risk factors===
Line 267: Line 247:


==Natural history, complications and prognosis==
==Natural history, complications and prognosis==
Inflammatory breast cancer complication
 
===Natural History===
There is no significant natural history regarding the breast abscess. However, the abscess generally if not treated it will burst around its site or necrosis will take place.
 
===Complications===
Complications that can develop in cases of breast abscess are:
 
*Inflammatory breast cancer
*Milk fistula
*Antibioma
 
===Prognosis===
Breast abscess prognosis is good with treatment but it has a high recurrence rate. In non lactational abscess has a high chance of recurrence (more than 50% of the cases).<ref name="pmid24450694">{{cite journal| author=Kasales CJ, Han B, Smith JS, Chetlen AL, Kaneda HJ, Shereef S| title=Nonpuerperal mastitis and subareolar abscess of the breast. | journal=AJR Am J Roentgenol | year= 2014 | volume= 202 | issue= 2 | pages= W133-9 | pmid=24450694 | doi=10.2214/AJR.13.10551 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24450694  }} </ref>. In the lactational abscess the chance of recurrence is around 35-50% of the cases.<ref name="pmid24519768">{{cite journal| author=Miller AB, Wall C, Baines CJ, Sun P, To T, Narod SA| title=Twenty five year follow-up for breast cancer incidence and mortality of the Canadian National Breast Screening Study: randomised screening trial. | journal=BMJ | year= 2014 | volume= 348 | issue=  | pages= g366 | pmid=24519768 | doi=10.1136/bmj.g366 | pmc=3921437 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24519768  }}  [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24785471 Review in: Evid Based Med. 2014 Oct;19(5):183]  [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24842441 Review in: Ann Intern Med. 2014 May 20;160(10):JC7] </ref>
<ref name="pmid22553470">{{cite journal| author=Fahrni M, Schwarz EI, Stadlmann S, Singer G, Hauser N, Kubik-Huch RA| title=Breast Abscesses: Diagnosis, Treatment and Outcome. | journal=Breast Care (Basel) | year= 2012 | volume= 7 | issue= 1 | pages= 32-38 | pmid=22553470 | doi=10.1159/000336547 | pmc=3335354 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=22553470  }} </ref>


==Diagnosis==  
==Diagnosis==  
===History and Symptoms===
===History and Symptoms===
Breast abscess can be noticed first by the patient like a breast mass or lump. The patient usually has current breast infection(mastitis) or history of the infection.  
Breast abscess can be noticed first by the patient like a [[Breast mass causes|breast mass]] or [[lump]]. The patient usually has current breast infection(mastitis) or history of the infection.  
In order to get precise diagnosis of breast abscess, these items should be put in consideration:<ref name="pmid23450563">{{cite journal| author=Jahanfar S, Ng CJ, Teng CL| title=Antibiotics for mastitis in breastfeeding women. | journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev | year= 2013 | volume=  | issue= 2 | pages= CD005458 | pmid=23450563 | doi=10.1002/14651858.CD005458.pub3 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23450563  }} </ref> <ref name="pmid24791941">{{cite journal| author=Lam E, Chan T, Wiseman SM| title=Breast abscess: evidence based management recommendations. | journal=Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther | year= 2014 | volume= 12 | issue= 7 | pages= 753-62 | pmid=24791941 | doi=10.1586/14787210.2014.913982 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24791941  }} </ref>
In order to get precise diagnosis of breast abscess, these items should be put in consideration:<ref name="pmid23450563">{{cite journal| author=Jahanfar S, Ng CJ, Teng CL| title=Antibiotics for mastitis in breastfeeding women. | journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev | year= 2013 | volume=  | issue= 2 | pages= CD005458 | pmid=23450563 | doi=10.1002/14651858.CD005458.pub3 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=23450563  }} </ref> <ref name="pmid24791941">{{cite journal| author=Lam E, Chan T, Wiseman SM| title=Breast abscess: evidence based management recommendations. | journal=Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther | year= 2014 | volume= 12 | issue= 7 | pages= 753-62 | pmid=24791941 | doi=10.1586/14787210.2014.913982 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24791941  }} </ref>
*Local painful breast lump
*Local painful breast lump
*History of mastitis
*History of mastitis
*Nipple discharge  
*[[Nipple discharge]]
*Risk factors of the breast abscess like trauma, duct ectasia or insect bites.   
*Risk factors of the breast abscess like [[trauma]], duct ectasia or insect bites.   
*If lactating patient: breast-feeding history  
*If lactating patient: breast-feeding history  
*If non-lactating history: diabetic history
*If non-lactating history: diabetic history
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====Most common symptoms====
====Most common symptoms====
Breast abscess has a typical abscess symptoms which are:  
Breast abscess has a typical abscess symptoms which are:  
*Fever and fatigue
*[[Fever]] and [[fatigue]]
*Redness
*[[Erythema|Redness]]
*Warmth
*Warmth
*localized swelling  
*localized [[swelling]]
*Breast skin induration
*Breast [[Induration|skin induration]]


====Less common symptoms====  
====Less common symptoms====  
*Nipple discharge<ref name="pmid16371879">{{cite journal| author=Faden H| title=Mastitis in children from birth to 17 years. | journal=Pediatr Infect Dis J | year= 2005 | volume= 24 | issue= 12 | pages= 1113 | pmid=16371879 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16371879  }} </ref>
*Nipple discharge<ref name="pmid16371879">{{cite journal| author=Faden H| title=Mastitis in children from birth to 17 years. | journal=Pediatr Infect Dis J | year= 2005 | volume= 24 | issue= 12 | pages= 1113 | pmid=16371879 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=16371879  }} </ref>
*Fistula  
*[[Fistula]]
*Mass in the breast
*Mass in the breast


===Physical examination===
===Physical examination===
Patients with breast abscess are remarkable for the breast tenderness, swelling, redness and warmth of the skin.
Patients with breast abscess are remarkable for the [[Tenderness|breast tenderness]], swelling, redness and warmth of the skin.


===Laboratory findings===
===Laboratory findings===
Breast abscess diagnosis depends only on the clinical manifestations of the abscess not the laboratory findings. However, a culture could be taken from the milk and the pus just to decide the antibiotics needed for the treatment.<ref name="pmid18819238">{{cite journal| author=Spencer JP| title=Management of mastitis in breastfeeding women. | journal=Am Fam Physician | year= 2008 | volume= 78 | issue= 6 | pages= 727-31 | pmid=18819238 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18819238  }} </ref>
Breast abscess diagnosis depends only on the clinical manifestations of the abscess not the laboratory findings. However, a culture could be taken from the milk and the [[pus]] just to decide the [[antibiotics]] needed for the treatment.<ref name="pmid18819238">{{cite journal| author=Spencer JP| title=Management of mastitis in breastfeeding women. | journal=Am Fam Physician | year= 2008 | volume= 78 | issue= 6 | pages= 727-31 | pmid=18819238 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18819238  }} </ref>


===Electrocardiogram===
===Electrocardiogram===
There is no significant changes in the EKG of breast abscess patients.  
There is no significant changes in the [[EKG]] of breast abscess patients.  


===Chest X ray===
===Chest X ray===
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===Other Imaging Findings===  
===Other Imaging Findings===  
Mammography is not indicated to be used in diagnosis of the breast abscess. However, it is strongly recommended in these cases to be used to differentiate between the breast abscess and other breast diseases and cancer.<ref name="pmid12965983">{{cite journal| author=Kerlikowske K, Smith-Bindman R, Ljung BM, Grady D| title=Evaluation of abnormal mammography results and palpable breast abnormalities. | journal=Ann Intern Med | year= 2003 | volume= 139 | issue= 4 | pages= 274-84 | pmid=12965983 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12965983  }} </ref>
[[Mammography]] is not indicated to be used in diagnosis of the breast abscess. However, it is strongly recommended in these cases to be used to differentiate between the breast abscess and other breast diseases and [[cancer]].<ref name="pmid12965983">{{cite journal| author=Kerlikowske K, Smith-Bindman R, Ljung BM, Grady D| title=Evaluation of abnormal mammography results and palpable breast abnormalities. | journal=Ann Intern Med | year= 2003 | volume= 139 | issue= 4 | pages= 274-84 | pmid=12965983 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=12965983  }} </ref>


==Treatment==
==Treatment==
Breast abscess treatment regimen includes both abscess drainage (surgically and by aspiration) and antibiotic medical therapy.It is treated mainly surgically through abscess drainage and suction.The patient should be referred immediately to the breast surgeon to start the [[abscess drainage]].<ref name="pmid24465097">{{cite journal| author=Kataria K, Srivastava A, Dhar A| title=Management of lactational mastitis and breast abscesses: review of current knowledge and practice. | journal=Indian J Surg | year= 2013 | volume= 75 | issue= 6 | pages= 430-5 | pmid=24465097 | doi=10.1007/s12262-012-0776-1 | pmc=3900741 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24465097  }} </ref>
===Medical therapy===
Medical treatment is important alongside the surgical treatment.Breast abscess is treated with antibiotic medical therapy as a supportive line to the surgical measures and to prevent the abscess recurrance. The choice of the antibiotic medications depends on the pathogen type however, the high possibility of the pathogen to be staphylococcus aureus leads to start the antibiotic medications before the result of the discharge culture.<ref name="pmid17639835">{{cite journal| author=Dixon JM| title=Breast abscess. | journal=Br J Hosp Med (Lond) | year= 2007 | volume= 68 | issue= 6 | pages= 315-20 | pmid=17639835 | doi=10.12968/hmed.2007.68.6.23574 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=17639835  }} </ref>.
====General measures====
[[Breast abscess]] is painful so providing [[analgesics]] like [[profen]] is indicated to the patients. In order to relieve the [[pain]] and decrease the [[edema]], breast support is indicated also.<ref name="pmid24465097">{{cite journal| author=Kataria K, Srivastava A, Dhar A| title=Management of lactational mastitis and breast abscesses: review of current knowledge and practice. | journal=Indian J Surg | year= 2013 | volume= 75 | issue= 6 | pages= 430-5 | pmid=24465097 | doi=10.1007/s12262-012-0776-1 | pmc=3900741 | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24465097  }} </ref>
====Lactaitonal breast abscess====
*Preferred regimen: [[Flucloxacillin]] 500 mg BID if there is no allergy to penicillin.
*Preferred regimen: [[Dicloxacillin]] 500 mg PID if there is no allergy to penicillin. 
*Alternative regimen: [[Erythromycin]] 500 mg BID in case of penicillin allergy.
====Non lactational breast abscess====
*Preferred regimen: [[Co-amocyclave]] 375 TID if there is no allegy to penicillin.
*Alternative regimen: Combination of [[Erythromycin]] 500 mg BID and [[Metronidazole]] 200 mg TID in case of penicillin allergy.
===Surgery===
The first line of breast abscess treatment is US guided needle aspiration and surgical drainage of the abscess.<ref name="pmid24947530">{{cite journal| author=Stevens DL, Bisno AL, Chambers HF, Dellinger EP, Goldstein EJ, Gorbach SL et al.| title=Practice guidelines for the diagnosis and management of skin and soft tissue infections: 2014 update by the infectious diseases society of America. | journal=Clin Infect Dis | year= 2014 | volume= 59 | issue= 2 | pages= 147-59 | pmid=24947530 | doi=10.1093/cid/ciu296 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=24947530  }} </ref>
====Aspiration====
Needle [[aspiration]] is used particularly in the small and medium sized abscesses. It can be US-guided aspiration or without the US. Local anesthesia is required in order to reduce the pain of the abscess location. It is preferred in case the breast skin is not affected with the abscess. This process is preferably done two or three times to ensure that the abscess location is completely clean from all the pus.
====Surgical drainage====
If there is no response after several times of needle aspiration to the abscess then surgical drainage is the best line of treatment in this case. If there is no response to the surgical drainage then the last line of treatment is to do excision to the lactiferous duct of the affected breast.<ref name="pmid21997989">{{cite journal| author=Trop I, Dugas A, David J, El Khoury M, Boileau JF, Larouche N et al.| title=Breast abscesses: evidence-based algorithms for diagnosis, management, and follow-up. | journal=Radiographics | year= 2011 | volume= 31 | issue= 6 | pages= 1683-99 | pmid=21997989 | doi=10.1148/rg.316115521 | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=21997989  }} </ref>
Abscess surgical drainage is the best line of treatment in these cases:
*The skin is included in the abscess.
*Unresponsive abscess to medical therapy or the aspiration.
*Large abscesses.
Video explaining how the breast abscess is drained:
{{#ev:youtube|baG-qBPdeRA}}
===Prevention===
Breast abscess prevention depends on the prevention of the risk factors and the patients hygiene specially in the lactating patients:
*Patients should be taught to keep the nipple area clean especially if there is injury
*Complete emptying of the breast after feeding the infant in order to prevent milk stasis
*Keep the infant in a good contact during breastfeeding
*Avoid dehydration in the nipple and the surrounding to prevent cracking
*Keep the infant clean
*Infection control through washing hands frequently
*It is advised to continue breastfeeding after the drainage to prevent recurrence and help healing.<ref name="pmid18819238">{{cite journal| author=Spencer JP| title=Management of mastitis in breastfeeding women. | journal=Am Fam Physician | year= 2008 | volume= 78 | issue= 6 | pages= 727-31 | pmid=18819238 | doi= | pmc= | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=sumsearch.org/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=18819238  }} </ref>


==References==
==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
{{Reflist|2}}

Latest revision as of 16:39, 10 March 2017

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1] Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Ahmed Elsaiey, MBBCH [2]

Synonyms and keywords: Mammary abscess, Zuska's disease, lactiferous fistula.

Overview

Historic Perspective

In 1841, Dr. Jonathan Toogood reported a case of breast abscess out of only 5 cases at this time.[1]

Classification

Breast Abscess may be classified according to anatomical location and lactation state of the patient into subtypes.[2]

Pathophysiology

Following untreated mastitis, breast abscess could occur. Breast abscess is usually caused by staphylococcus aureus bacterial infection to an injured breast skin. Staphylococcus aureus could form abscess by secretion of several killing agents like enzymes and toxins. In a reaction to these bacterial substances, assembled white blood cells in this tissue produces anti-bacterial anti-bodies that help in killing the bacteria. However, these cells cause damage to the soft tissue contributing in the abscess formation. As the breast abscess is the complicated form of mastitis, the pathophysiology is mostly like the mastitis pathophysiology.[3]

Pathogenesis

Breast abscess is the result of underlying inflammation (mastitis) in the breast skin. Injury may happen either during the lactation process from the infant or in the non-lactaion state of the patient as a cracking in the breast skin. This injury accelerates the entry of the causative bacteria which by its role form the abscess. [4]
In neglected cases, there may be necrosis in the abscess location leads to fibrosis, scarring and nipple retraction.

  • Lactational:
    • Injured breast skin allows the entrance of the bacteria to the mammillary ducts. This bacteria can be from the infant or the mother herself. Overproduction of the breast milk with no flow to the infant forms an opportunistic field for the bacteria to cause infection.[5]
    • Breast Duct Ectasia: metaplastic change of the duct cells can cause duct ectasia. This change causes widening of the ducts lining which leads to thickening of the ducts and obstruction. The ducts become filled with fluid which leads to nipple discharge and infection by the entrance of the bacteria and can form pus and abscess as a final result. [6]
  • Non-Lactional:
    • Non lactational breast abscess is less common than lactational form. It can be subgrouped into central, peripheral and skin associating.
    • Cracking in the skin will overtly help the bacteria to enter and form the abscess.

Associated Diseases

There is no associated diseases with breast abscess.

Causes

Breast abscess is a bacterial infectious disease that is caused by many bacterial pathogens and it may also be caused by fungi mostly common candida through the infant mouth. It is almost caused by the same pathogens causing mastitis. To understand the common species causing breast abscess we can classify them into gram +ve and gram -ve bacteria. [7][8][9]

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Bacterial pathogens causing breast abscess
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Gram +ve
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Gram -ve
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Staphylococcus Aureus (Most common cause of the lactational abscess)
•MRSA (Became a common pathogen causing the abscess)
•Coagulase -ve Staphylococcus Aureus
 
Streptococcus pyogens
 
Lactobacillus
 
Clostridium
 
 
 
 
 
Veillonella
 
Bacteroids
 
Escherishia Coli
 
Enterobacteria
 

Differentiating Breast abscess from other Diseases

Breast abscess should be differentiated from other diseases that cause swelling in the breast skin. These diseases are like mastitis, inflammatory breast cancer, galactocele, plugged duct, Mondor's syndrome and fibroadenoma.[10][11] [12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19]

Diseases Laboratory Findings Physical Examination History and Symptoms Other Findings
Culture of the discharge Biopsy Breast tenderness Skin induration Cordlike vein appearance History of trauma Nipple retraction Nipple discharge Erythema Fever Warmth Lymphadenopathy Itching
Breast abscess
Mastitis
Inflammatory breast cancer *Peau d' orange appearance of the skin

*Metastasis is common.

Galactocele It is differentiated from other masses by US.
Plugged duct
Mondor's syndrome Retracted breast skin and elevation of the skin may be observed.
Cellulitis
Fibroadenoma *Peau d' orange skin apperance.

*Enlarged veins on the skin

Other differential diagnosis of breast abscess can include:

Epidemiology and Demographics

Breast abscess is a rare disease that may occur due to improper treatment of the mastitis. There is no significant prevalence concerning the abscess.

Incidence

  • The incidence of breast abscess is 3,000-11,000 per 100,000 of patients with mastitis.
  • The incidence of breast abscess is only 100-3,000 per 100,000 of the puerperal patients. [20][21]

Age

  • Patients of all age groups may develop breast abscess.
  • Breast abscess is more common observed in the infants and the young more than the elder.
  • It is common in neonates with mastitis as approximately 50 percent of the neonatal patients with mastitis can develop breast abscess.[8]

Gender

Breast abscess occurs commonly in women. It is very rare to be developed in men.

Race

Breast abscess is more prevalent in the african american race.[22]

Risk Factors

More common risk factors

  • The most important risk factor of breast abscess is trauma.Trauma increases the possibility of the abscess formation as it facilitates the entrance of the causative bacteria into the soft tissue. Trauma can take place by different ways like shaving subareolar hair, piercing of nipple, infant's mouth during breastfeeding and picking acne lesions.
  • Smoking: increases the chances of abscess recurrence.[23]
  • Obesity
  • Diabetes mellitus
  • Duct ectasia of the breast.
  • Local skin infection

Less common risk factors

These risk factors are related more to the non-lactational breast abscess.[24]

  • Insect bites
  • Increasing age
  • Surgical treatment: increases recurrence rate of the abscess.[23]

Natural history, complications and prognosis

Natural History

There is no significant natural history regarding the breast abscess. However, the abscess generally if not treated it will burst around its site or necrosis will take place.

Complications

Complications that can develop in cases of breast abscess are:

  • Inflammatory breast cancer
  • Milk fistula
  • Antibioma

Prognosis

Breast abscess prognosis is good with treatment but it has a high recurrence rate. In non lactational abscess has a high chance of recurrence (more than 50% of the cases).[25]. In the lactational abscess the chance of recurrence is around 35-50% of the cases.[26] [27]

Diagnosis

History and Symptoms

Breast abscess can be noticed first by the patient like a breast mass or lump. The patient usually has current breast infection(mastitis) or history of the infection. In order to get precise diagnosis of breast abscess, these items should be put in consideration:[11] [12]

  • Local painful breast lump
  • History of mastitis
  • Nipple discharge
  • Risk factors of the breast abscess like trauma, duct ectasia or insect bites.
  • If lactating patient: breast-feeding history
  • If non-lactating history: diabetic history

Most common symptoms

Breast abscess has a typical abscess symptoms which are:

Less common symptoms

Physical examination

Patients with breast abscess are remarkable for the breast tenderness, swelling, redness and warmth of the skin.

Laboratory findings

Breast abscess diagnosis depends only on the clinical manifestations of the abscess not the laboratory findings. However, a culture could be taken from the milk and the pus just to decide the antibiotics needed for the treatment.[29]

Electrocardiogram

There is no significant changes in the EKG of breast abscess patients.

Chest X ray

There is no x-ray changes in the chest of breast abscess patients.

CT Scan

CT scan is not used to diagnose the breast abscess. However, it can be performed to exclude other diseases like breast cancer.

Ultrasound

  • Ultrasonography is an important imaging approach for diagnosis of the breast abscess. It is mainly used to differentiate between the different diseases causing breast lumps. It is also used in abscess needle aspiration guiding.[30]
  • Breast abscess on chest ultrasonography appears like medium sized collections with not well defined margins and may have some areas with increased density.[27]
  • There is no vascularity in the US image.

Other Imaging Findings

Mammography is not indicated to be used in diagnosis of the breast abscess. However, it is strongly recommended in these cases to be used to differentiate between the breast abscess and other breast diseases and cancer.[31]

Treatment

Breast abscess treatment regimen includes both abscess drainage (surgically and by aspiration) and antibiotic medical therapy.It is treated mainly surgically through abscess drainage and suction.The patient should be referred immediately to the breast surgeon to start the abscess drainage.[4]

Medical therapy

Medical treatment is important alongside the surgical treatment.Breast abscess is treated with antibiotic medical therapy as a supportive line to the surgical measures and to prevent the abscess recurrance. The choice of the antibiotic medications depends on the pathogen type however, the high possibility of the pathogen to be staphylococcus aureus leads to start the antibiotic medications before the result of the discharge culture.[32].

General measures

Breast abscess is painful so providing analgesics like profen is indicated to the patients. In order to relieve the pain and decrease the edema, breast support is indicated also.[4]

Lactaitonal breast abscess

  • Preferred regimen: Flucloxacillin 500 mg BID if there is no allergy to penicillin.
  • Preferred regimen: Dicloxacillin 500 mg PID if there is no allergy to penicillin.
  • Alternative regimen: Erythromycin 500 mg BID in case of penicillin allergy.

Non lactational breast abscess

  • Preferred regimen: Co-amocyclave 375 TID if there is no allegy to penicillin.
  • Alternative regimen: Combination of Erythromycin 500 mg BID and Metronidazole 200 mg TID in case of penicillin allergy.

Surgery

The first line of breast abscess treatment is US guided needle aspiration and surgical drainage of the abscess.[33]

Aspiration

Needle aspiration is used particularly in the small and medium sized abscesses. It can be US-guided aspiration or without the US. Local anesthesia is required in order to reduce the pain of the abscess location. It is preferred in case the breast skin is not affected with the abscess. This process is preferably done two or three times to ensure that the abscess location is completely clean from all the pus.

Surgical drainage

If there is no response after several times of needle aspiration to the abscess then surgical drainage is the best line of treatment in this case. If there is no response to the surgical drainage then the last line of treatment is to do excision to the lactiferous duct of the affected breast.[34]

Abscess surgical drainage is the best line of treatment in these cases:

  • The skin is included in the abscess.
  • Unresponsive abscess to medical therapy or the aspiration.
  • Large abscesses.

Video explaining how the breast abscess is drained: {{#ev:youtube|baG-qBPdeRA}}

Prevention

Breast abscess prevention depends on the prevention of the risk factors and the patients hygiene specially in the lactating patients:

  • Patients should be taught to keep the nipple area clean especially if there is injury
  • Complete emptying of the breast after feeding the infant in order to prevent milk stasis
  • Keep the infant in a good contact during breastfeeding
  • Avoid dehydration in the nipple and the surrounding to prevent cracking
  • Keep the infant clean
  • Infection control through washing hands frequently
  • It is advised to continue breastfeeding after the drainage to prevent recurrence and help healing.[29]

References

  1. Toogood J (1841). "On Deep-Seated Abscess of the Breast". Prov Med Surg J (1840). 2 (47): 418–9. PMC 2489248. PMID 21379654.
  2. Dixon JM (1994). "ABC of breast diseases. Breast infection". BMJ. 309 (6959): 946–9. PMC 2541130. PMID 7755694.
  3. Kobayashi SD, Malachowa N, DeLeo FR (2015). "Pathogenesis of Staphylococcus aureus abscesses". Am J Pathol. 185 (6): 1518–27. doi:10.1016/j.ajpath.2014.11.030. PMC 4450319. PMID 25749135.
  4. 4.0 4.1 4.2 Kataria K, Srivastava A, Dhar A (2013). "Management of lactational mastitis and breast abscesses: review of current knowledge and practice". Indian J Surg. 75 (6): 430–5. doi:10.1007/s12262-012-0776-1. PMC 3900741. PMID 24465097.
  5. Marchant DJ (2002). "Inflammation of the breast". Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am. 29 (1): 89–102. PMID 11892876.
  6. Bundred NJ, Dixon JM, Lumsden AB, Radford D, Hood J, Miles RS; et al. (1985). "Are the lesions of duct ectasia sterile?". Br J Surg. 72 (10): 844–5. PMID 4041720.
  7. Dabbas N, Chand M, Pallett A, Royle GT, Sainsbury R (2010). "Have the organisms that cause breast abscess changed with time?--Implications for appropriate antibiotic usage in primary and secondary care". Breast J. 16 (4): 412–5. doi:10.1111/j.1524-4741.2010.00923.x. PMID 20443790.
  8. 8.0 8.1 Kaneda HJ, Mack J, Kasales CJ, Schetter S (2013). "Pediatric and adolescent breast masses: a review of pathophysiology, imaging, diagnosis, and treatment". AJR Am J Roentgenol. 200 (2): W204–12. doi:10.2214/AJR.12.9560. PMID 23345385.
  9. Surani S, Chandna H, Weinstein RA (1993). "Breast abscess: coagulase-negative staphylococcus as a sole pathogen". Clin Infect Dis. 17 (4): 701–4. PMID 8268353.
  10. Greydanus DE, Matytsina L, Gains M (2006). "Breast disorders in children and adolescents". Prim Care. 33 (2): 455–502. doi:10.1016/j.pop.2006.02.002. PMID 16713771.
  11. 11.0 11.1 Jahanfar S, Ng CJ, Teng CL (2013). "Antibiotics for mastitis in breastfeeding women". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (2): CD005458. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD005458.pub3. PMID 23450563.
  12. 12.0 12.1 Lam E, Chan T, Wiseman SM (2014). "Breast abscess: evidence based management recommendations". Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 12 (7): 753–62. doi:10.1586/14787210.2014.913982. PMID 24791941.
  13. Kleer CG, van Golen KL, Merajver SD (2000). "Molecular biology of breast cancer metastasis. Inflammatory breast cancer: clinical syndrome and molecular determinants". Breast Cancer Res. 2 (6): 423–9. doi:10.1186/bcr89. PMC 138665. PMID 11250736.
  14. Dawood S, Merajver SD, Viens P, Vermeulen PB, Swain SM, Buchholz TA; et al. (2011). "International expert panel on inflammatory breast cancer: consensus statement for standardized diagnosis and treatment". Ann Oncol. 22 (3): 515–23. doi:10.1093/annonc/mdq345. PMC 3105293. PMID 20603440.
  15. Jaiyesimi IA, Buzdar AU, Hortobagyi G (1992). "Inflammatory breast cancer: a review". J Clin Oncol. 10 (6): 1014–24. doi:10.1200/JCO.1992.10.6.1014. PMID 1588366.
  16. Indelicato DJ, Grobmyer SR, Newlin H, Morris CG, Haigh LS, Copeland EM; et al. (2006). "Delayed breast cellulitis: an evolving complication of breast conservation". Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 66 (5): 1339–46. doi:10.1016/j.ijrobp.2006.07.1388. PMID 17126205.
  17. Belleflamme M, Penaloza A, Thoma M, Hainaut P, Thys F (2012). "Mondor disease: a case report in ED". Am J Emerg Med. 30 (7): 1325.e1–3. doi:10.1016/j.ajem.2011.06.031. PMID 21855258.
  18. Shetty MK, Watson AB (2001). "Mondor's disease of the breast: sonographic and mammographic findings". AJR Am J Roentgenol. 177 (4): 893–6. doi:10.2214/ajr.177.4.1770893. PMID 11566698.
  19. Kadioglu H, Yildiz S, Ersoy YE, Yücel S, Müslümanoğlu M (2013). "An unusual case caused by a common reason: Mondor's disease by oral contraceptives". Int J Surg Case Rep. 4 (10): 855–7. doi:10.1016/j.ijscr.2013.07.026. PMC 3785854. PMID 23959419.
  20. Amir LH, Forster D, McLachlan H, Lumley J (2004). "Incidence of breast abscess in lactating women: report from an Australian cohort". BJOG. 111 (12): 1378–81. PMID 15663122.
  21. Whitaker-Worth DL, Carlone V, Susser WS, Phelan N, Grant-Kels JM (2000). "Dermatologic diseases of the breast and nipple". J Am Acad Dermatol. 43 (5 Pt 1): 733–51, quiz 752-4. doi:10.1067/mjd.2000.109303. PMID 11050577.
  22. Bharat A, Gao F, Aft RL, Gillanders WE, Eberlein TJ, Margenthaler JA (2009). "Predictors of primary breast abscesses and recurrence". World J Surg. 33 (12): 2582–6. doi:10.1007/s00268-009-0170-8. PMC 3892669. PMID 19669231.
  23. 23.0 23.1 Gollapalli V, Liao J, Dudakovic A, Sugg SL, Scott-Conner CE, Weigel RJ (2010). "Risk factors for development and recurrence of primary breast abscesses". J Am Coll Surg. 211 (1): 41–8. doi:10.1016/j.jamcollsurg.2010.04.007. PMID 20610247.
  24. Benson EA (1989). "Management of breast abscesses". World J Surg. 13 (6): 753–6. PMID 2696229.
  25. Kasales CJ, Han B, Smith JS, Chetlen AL, Kaneda HJ, Shereef S (2014). "Nonpuerperal mastitis and subareolar abscess of the breast". AJR Am J Roentgenol. 202 (2): W133–9. doi:10.2214/AJR.13.10551. PMID 24450694.
  26. Miller AB, Wall C, Baines CJ, Sun P, To T, Narod SA (2014). "Twenty five year follow-up for breast cancer incidence and mortality of the Canadian National Breast Screening Study: randomised screening trial". BMJ. 348: g366. doi:10.1136/bmj.g366. PMC 3921437. PMID 24519768. Review in: Evid Based Med. 2014 Oct;19(5):183 Review in: Ann Intern Med. 2014 May 20;160(10):JC7
  27. 27.0 27.1 Fahrni M, Schwarz EI, Stadlmann S, Singer G, Hauser N, Kubik-Huch RA (2012). "Breast Abscesses: Diagnosis, Treatment and Outcome". Breast Care (Basel). 7 (1): 32–38. doi:10.1159/000336547. PMC 3335354. PMID 22553470.
  28. Faden H (2005). "Mastitis in children from birth to 17 years". Pediatr Infect Dis J. 24 (12): 1113. PMID 16371879.
  29. 29.0 29.1 Spencer JP (2008). "Management of mastitis in breastfeeding women". Am Fam Physician. 78 (6): 727–31. PMID 18819238.
  30. Muttarak M, Chaiwun B (2004). "Imaging of giant breast masses with pathological correlation". Singapore Med J. 45 (3): 132–9. PMID 15029418.
  31. Kerlikowske K, Smith-Bindman R, Ljung BM, Grady D (2003). "Evaluation of abnormal mammography results and palpable breast abnormalities". Ann Intern Med. 139 (4): 274–84. PMID 12965983.
  32. Dixon JM (2007). "Breast abscess". Br J Hosp Med (Lond). 68 (6): 315–20. doi:10.12968/hmed.2007.68.6.23574. PMID 17639835.
  33. Stevens DL, Bisno AL, Chambers HF, Dellinger EP, Goldstein EJ, Gorbach SL; et al. (2014). "Practice guidelines for the diagnosis and management of skin and soft tissue infections: 2014 update by the infectious diseases society of America". Clin Infect Dis. 59 (2): 147–59. doi:10.1093/cid/ciu296. PMID 24947530.
  34. Trop I, Dugas A, David J, El Khoury M, Boileau JF, Larouche N; et al. (2011). "Breast abscesses: evidence-based algorithms for diagnosis, management, and follow-up". Radiographics. 31 (6): 1683–99. doi:10.1148/rg.316115521. PMID 21997989.