Sexual abstinence

You don't need to be Editor-In-Chief to add or edit content to WikiDoc. You can begin to add to or edit text on this WikiDoc page by clicking on the edit button at the top of this page. Next enter or edit the information that you would like to appear here. Once you are done editing, scroll down and click the Save page button at the bottom of the page.

Image:No image.svg

This article needs additional references or sources for verification. Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unverifiable material may be challenged and removed.

Sexual abstinence is the practice of voluntarily refraining from some or all aspects of sexual activity. Common reasons to deliberately abstain from the physical expression of sexual desire include religious or philosophical reasons (e.g., chastity), material reasons (to prevent conception [undesired pregnancy] or STD transmission), psycho-sociological reasons (e.g., clinical depression, social anxiety disorder), negative past experiences, or to conform to legal injunctions.

Sexual abstinence has been debated since antiquity, both in terms of same-sex and opposite-sex relationships. See Platonic love

Premarital chastity

Main article: Chastity

Many religious and ethical systems proscribe sexual activities between a person and anyone other than a spouse of that person, including most denominational variations of Hinduism, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, as have, historically, many legal systems and societal norms. In such contexts, sexual abstinence was and is prescribed for unmarried individuals for the purpose of chastity. Chastity is sometimes used synonymously with sexual abstinence, but the mechanisms of chastity are typically largely different for persons who assume different societal roles. For example, in most cultural, ethical, and religious contexts, coitus within monogamous marriage is not considered to be opposed to chastity.

Western attitudes

Historically, there has been a swing from the sexually free end of the Industrial Revolution to the chaste values of the early Victorian period. This was then followed by a new puritanism from the late Victorian era to the mid-1900s. This important transformation often colors discussion of sexual behavior in the later 20th century period. The First World War began a return to sexual freedom and indulgence, but more often than not, the appearance of conforming to the earlier moral values of abstinence before marriage was retained. With the conclusion of the Second World War, the societal importance of abstinence declined swiftly. The advent of the first oral contraceptive pill and widely available antibiotics suppressed many consequences of wide and free sexual behavior, while social mores were also changing. By the 1970s, abandonment of premarital chastity was no longer taboo in the majority of western societies; perhaps even the reverse: that members of both sexes would have experienced a number of sexual partners before marriage. Some cultural groups continued to place a value on the moral purity of an abstainer, but abstinence was caught up in a wider reevaluation of moral values.

In some cultures, those who infringe the rules regarding chastity may be ostracized. Social reacceptance can sometimes be regained by marriage between the two. In the West, even as late as the mid-20th century, there was a stigma attached to being a 'one-parent family,' and an illegitimate child could be legitimized by the marriage of the parents. (This latter is still the case in many Western countries, though the lifting of legal penalties and social stigma regarding illegitimacy has rendered this irrelevant to social acceptance.)

Abstinence

Lifelong (or at least long-term) abstinence, often associated with religious ascetism, is distinguished from chastity before marriage. Abstinence is often viewed as an admirable act of self-control over the natural desire to have sex. The display of the strength of character allows the abstainer to set an example for those not able to contain their "base urges." At other times, abstinence has been seen as a great social ill practiced by those who refuse to engage with the material and physical world. Some groups that propose sexual abstinence consider it an essential means to reach a particular intellectual or spiritual condition, or that chastity allows one to achieve a required self-control or a self-consciousness.See The Heremeneutics of Sexual Order

In many religions, chastity is required of the respective sacerdotal orders. In some religions, including some branches of Christianity such as Catholicism, celibacy is required for priests and/or monks. The Shakers, on the other hand, impose chastity in the form of celibacy for all members.

While there have been cultures which achieved total sexual abstinence, such as castration cults, it is unlikely that any of them survived for a substantial period of time, due to their lack of reproduction. Regardless, the arrival of technology like in vitro fertilization allows reproduction without sexual intercourse.

Abstinence as a lifestyle

Although many individuals abstain from sex for complex reasons such as religion or morality, for some individuals, sexual abstinence is simply a lifestyle choice. Those individuals who fall into this category may have a dislike of sex, or are simply not interested in it. They may view sex as an unnecessary part of human life. As with other lifestyle choices, this attitude toward sex and relationships can vary greatly. Some who choose such a lifestyle still accept sex for reproduction, some engage in romantic relationships, and some engage in masturbation.

Medical aspects of abstinence

Throughout history, and especially prior to the 20th century, there have been those who have held that sexual abstinence confers numerous health benefits. For males, lack of abstinence was thought to cause a reduction of vitality. In modern times, the argument has been phrased in biological terms, claiming that loss of semen through ejaculation results in a depletion of vital nutrients such as lecithin and phosphorus, which are also found at high levels in the brain. Conservation of the semen allegedly allows it to be reabsorbed back into the bloodstream and aid in the healthy development of the body. Before the "sexual revolution" of the 1960s, it was commonly believed by members of the medical profession that numerous mental and physical diseases in men were caused primarily by loss of nutrients through seminal discharge, and that the deliberate conservation of this substance would lead to increased health, vitality, and intellectual prowess. This also applied to auto-erotic practices, which were also thought to lead to bedwetting and hairy palms.

Raymond W. Bernard, Ph.D. in his essay entitled Science discovers the physiological value of continence (1957) states:

"[I]t is clear that there is an important internal physiological relation between the secretions of the sex glands and the central nervous system, that the loss of these secretions, voluntarily or involuntarily, exercises a detrimental effect on the nutrition and vitality of the nerves and brain, while, on the other hand, the conservation of these secretions has a vitalizing effect on the nervous system, a regenerating effect on the endocrine glands[,] and a rejuvenating effect on the organism as a whole."

However, ill effects have not been found to be associated with frequent ejaculation, and one study suggests that frequent ejaculation may lead to a lower risk of prostate cancer (1). Indeed, there have been numerous studies indicating that excessive repression of the sexual instinct leads to an increase in the overall level of aggression in a given society. For example, psychologist J.M. Prescott, in a cross-cultural investigation published in The Bulletin of Atomic Scientists (1975), found that societies forbidding premarital sex are plagued by acts of rage, and tend to have higher rates of crime and violence. Prescott also found a link between sexual repression and aggression, insensitivity, criminal behavior, and a greater likelihood of killing and torturing enemies.

Chastity in Various Religions

Chastity is a virtue expected of the faithful of many religions, including Christians and Muslims. This usually includes abstinence from sex for the unmarried, and faithfulness to a marriage partner. In many religions, some groups of people are expected to practice celibacy—to abstain from sex completely, and remain unmarried. These groups include monks, nuns, and priests in various sects of Christianity. From the Roman Catholic perspective, everyone is called to chastity, be they married, single, or in a religious order. Chastity is a function of one's respect for the dignity of another, especially in a sexual context. Sex with one's spouse is not against chastity, so long as both remain open to having children—contraceptives violate true chastity.

In Christianity, sexual intercourse is meant to take place within the context of marriage; therefore, abstinence is expected of unmarried people. But for married couples, the apostle Paul wrote that they should not deprive each other, except for a time for devotion to prayer.

Judaism forbids intercourse outside marriage (which is termed zenuth or promiscuity), but has no ideal of abstinence for particular clerical groups. In fact, it is practically expected of men in religious functions (e.g., rabbis) to be married. Abstinence is practiced while a woman is menstruating, and during the week after cessation of flow (the law of niddah), as well as a set period after childbirth. See Abstinence in Judaism.

Islam also forbids intercourse outside of marriage; however, maintaining celibacy as an act of piety is strongly discouraged, and marriage for all who are able is strongly encouraged. Similar to Judaism, abstinence is practiced during the time of a woman's menstruation. Abstinence from sexual intercourse is also practiced during the dawn to dusk fasts of Ramadan or other fasting days.

The Hindu tradition of Brahmacharya places great emphasis on abstinence as a way of harnessing the energy of body and mind towards the goal of spiritual realization. In males, the semen (Veerja) is considered sacred, and its preservation (except when used for procreation) and conversion into higher life-energy (Ojas) is considered essential for the development of enhanced intellectual and spiritual capacities.

In the Vedanta tradition of Hinduism, the Brahman (Infinite Being) is regarded as the true Self of all, and the ego-personality is a lesser self. The belief that one is the ego rather than the Self is regarded as the root of ignorance, which leads to the problems in the world and in one's own life. All desires which center around the satisfaction of the ego are considered to have their basis in ignorance, because the true Self is all-pervading, and therefore, without desire for anything outside itself.

Most spiritual traditions share the view that humans are essentially spiritual beings, and that excessive indulgence in physical sense-pleasure takes one away from spiritual self-knowledge.

In Buddhism, attachment to impermanent things is regarded as one of the major causes of suffering. Sex is arguably the strongest attachment to impermanent things which human beings have. Therefore, in Buddhism, celibacy has been regarded as essential to obtaining Nirvana (liberation from suffering).

Satanism condones sexual behavior, as long as it is in accordance with the wills of the individuals participating. It does not support rape or incest, but simply sexual behavior based upon those involved, and their comfort. Satanism is perhaps the only religion which believes in Indulgence. For many Satanists, one must complete themselves before they can help others. Even abstinence is supported by Satanism, as long as the Satanist doesn't advocate their decisions.

Modern abstinence movements

Abstinence advocates recommend it as a way to avoid pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections. Without sexual contact, it is virtually impossible to conceive a child (other than through artificial insemination). By avoiding exposure of the sexual organs to other people, one will also avoid the sexual transmission of many diseases (STDs). Note, however, that many STDs can also be transmitted non-sexually. Some STDs (including genital warts due to human papillomavirus) are passed through skin-to-skin contact, and are either not prevented by using a condom, or such prevention is only partially effective. Further, some have noted that many do not consider oral sex or similar acts to violate abstinence. One study states that 55% of college students claiming abstinence had, indeed, performed oral sex. Many of these acts can transmit STDs.^[1]

However, critics note that many abstinence education programs include information that although true, is misleading. For example, many programs exaggerate the risks of oral sex; the risk of exposure to HIV through saliva is significantly less than through exposure to semen. Furthermore, HIV is far more likely to be transmitted through saliva when the recipient is already infected with another sexually transmitted infection, such as syphilis. Epidemiological studies from sub-Saharan Africa, Europe, and North America have suggested that there is approximately a four-times-greater risk of becoming infected with HIV in the presence of a genital ulcer, such as those caused by syphilis and/or chancroid.

Advocates also claim other benefits, such as the freedom from teenage pregnancy, and the resulting ability to focus on education and preparing for one's future.

Many critics of abstinence-promotion programs claim that these programs are not an effective way to decrease the occurrence of diseases and unwanted pregnancies. While supporters claim that abstinence is the only 100% successful birth control method, detractors point out that abstinence is 100% effective only with perfect use. Detractors further claim that human nature leads to a high failure rate in practice.^[2]

While some teens may have weak sexual desire, or few sexual opportunities, and thus be able to maintain it successfully, others will have stronger desires, more opportunities, or act under the influence of drugs^{[citation needed]}, and will in these situations not be prepared to take precautions (using condoms or other contraceptives). Worse, they may consider the independent acquisition of information about precautionary measures shameful, and avoid it altogether.

Pregnancy can also be avoided through selective sexual abstinence. This method is generally known as fertility awareness, or natural family planning. In order to be effective, the partners must abstain from coitus for a time sufficient to ensure that no spermatozoa (which have a lifespan of up to 5-6 days) are able to fertilize an ovum (which has a lifespan of up to 48 hours). There are a variety of types of fertility awareness. Observational systems, such as the sympto-thermo method, can have correct-use failure rates as low as 1% per year under perfect use, with a two-week abstinence period ^[3] (According to the WHO, this method has an estimated 25% failure rate under ordinary use).^[3] Statistical methods such as the Standard Days Method have higher correct-use failure rates.

Organizations such as SIECUS have called abstinence-only programs "fear-based," and "designed to control young people’s sexual behavior by instilling fear, shame, and guilt." [1] Author Judith Levine has argued that there might be a natural tendency of abstinence educators to escalate their messages: "Like advertising, which must continually jack up its seduction just to stay visible as other advertising proliferates, abstinence education had to make sex scarier and scarier and, at the same time, chastity sweeter." (Harmful to Minors, p.108)

In spite of these criticisms, abstinence has become the de facto focus of sex education in the United States, so that opponents frequently adopt the line that abstinence education is acceptable only if it is combined with other methods, such as instruction in the use of condoms, and easy availability thereof. Most nations of Western Europe use more comprehensive measures, and in sharp contrast to the heated discussion in the U.S., abstinence is hardly discussed as an educational measure.

A U.S. federal government-promoted abstinence-only program was aimed at teens in 1981 in order to discourage premarital sexual behavior and unwanted pregnancies. However, recent studies showed ineffectiveness of this program. The Responsible Education About Life Act was introduced by Senator Frank Lautenberg (D-NJ) and Representatives Barbara Lee (D-CA) and Christopher Shays (R-CT) to support age-appropriate sexual education. This program is focused to provide teenagers with science-based information on sexual health, so that they can make a sound decision regarding their sex-life.^[4]

In 2006, the administration of United States President George W. Bush expanded abstinence programs from teens to adults, by introducing programs to encourage unmarried adults to remain abstinent until marriage.^[5] Family-planning advocates and researchers denounced the program as unrealistic, due to the rising age of first-time marriage in the United States.^[6]

Popularity and effectiveness

See also: Sex education

The advent of AIDS helped restore the momentum of the favorable view of abstinence. However, a review of 13 U.S. sex-abstinence programs involving over 15,000 people found that they do not stop risky sexual behavior, or help in the prevention of unwanted pregnancy[2]. Currently, there are also issues as to what abstinence means: is it an abstinence from sexual intercourse, or from sexual behavior? Movements such as True Love Waits in America, which ask teenagers to refrain from sex before marriage, are heavily subscribed, but surveys of sexual behavior indicate an increase in the popularity of oral sex.^[7] Oral sex is not perceived as being "real sex." Teenagers indulge in sexual practices while claiming the traditional virtues of the virgin in cultures that admire it.

The effectiveness of abstinence programs and movements remains debated. The study "Promising the Future: Virginity Pledges and First Intercourse" by Peter Bearman and Hanna Brückner examined the relationship between virginity pledges and first sexual intercourse. From the abstract:^[8]

Since 1993, in response to a movement sponsored by the Southern Baptist Convention, over 2.5 million adolescents have taken public virginity pledges, in which they promise to abstain from sex until marriage. This paper explores the effect of those pledges on the transition to first intercourse. Adolescents who pledge are much less likely to have intercourse than adolescents who do not pledge. The delay effect is substantial. On the other hand, the pledge does not work for adolescents at all ages. Second, pledging delays intercourse only in contexts where there are some, but not too many, pledgers. The pledge works because it is embedded in an identity movement. Consequently, the pledge identity is meaningful only in contexts where it is at least partially nonnormative. Consequences of pledging are explored for those who break their promise. Promise-breakers are less likely than others to use contraception at first intercourse.

The effects observed in this study (and a follow-up [3] study) could be explained as mere correlations: Adolescents who feel the desire to take part in the virginity movement are more likely to remain abstinent for a variety of reasons, and less likely to have knowledge about contraception. Critics of abstinence-only education point to studies that show that teens who take virginity pledges are just as likely to have sex, but are more likely to do it without protection. However, they do show that they engage in sexual behavior later in life than their peers. Some studies have found that school-based abstinence programs actually increase the incidence of pregnancies.^[9]

See also

• Asexuality
• Abstinence, be faithful, use a condom
• Abstinence-only sex education
• Antisexualism
• Chastity belt
• Chastity ring
• Harmful to Minors, a book by Judith Levine which deals with sexual morality in the United States, and also discusses the issue of abstinence education
• Masturbation
• Platonic love
• Promiscuity
• Purity Ball
• Religious aspects of marriage
• Refusal skills
• Spiritual marriage
• Straight edge
• Teenage pregnancy
• Virginity pledge

References

1. ↑ Understanding 'Abstinence': Implications for Individuals, Programs and Policies (2003). Retrieved on 2006-10-09.
2. ↑ Abstinence Is Foolproof? Think Again! (2006). Retrieved on 2006-10-09.
3. ↑ ^{3.0 3.1} Mims, Christopher (2007-3-23), "Modified Rhythm Method Shown to Be as Effective as the Pill—But Who Has That Kind of Self-Control?", Scientific American, <http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleid=80D25E2D-E7F2-99DF-39F66842EB6BE952>. Retrieved on 2007-10-3
4. ↑ Congress changed its mind on abstinence
5. ↑ New Bush Administration Policy Promotes Abstinence Until Marriage Among People in their 20s, Guttmacher Policy Review 2006, Volume 9, Number 4. Available online at http://www.guttmacher.org/pubs/gpr/09/4/gpr090423.html
6. ↑ Boerner, Heather. Questioning Abstinence Until Marriage. Available online at http://www.plannedparenthood.org/news-articles-press/politics-policy-issues/teen-pregnancy-sex-education/premarital-sex-13377.htm
7. ↑ Lisa Remez (Nov.–Dec. 2000). "Oral Sex among Adolescents: Is It Sex or Is It Abstinence?". Family Planning Perspectives 32 (6): 298–304.
8. ↑ Peter S. Bearman and Hannah Brückner: Promising the Future: Virginity Pledges and First Intercourse. American Journal of Sociology, Volume 106, Number 4 (January 2001), pp. 859-912.
9. ↑ DiCenso A. et al.: Interventions to Reduce Unintended Pregnancies Among Adolescents: Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials. British Medical Journal 2002;324:1426.

External links

• James W. Prescott, "Body pleasure and the origins of violence", The Bulletin of The Atomic Scientists, November 1975, pp. 10-20 online copy. Claims that somatosensory (including sexual) deprivation as minors causes violent behavior of grown-ups.
• Chastity in Catholic Encyclopedia — a Christian view on chastity
• No New Money for Abstinence-Only-Until-Marriage Programs advocacy website
• Pure Love Club advocacy group that encourages sexual abstinence and chastity
• Real Love syndicated columnist and abstinence advocate
• Silver Ring Thing abstinence pledge program
• Social Determinants of Attitudes Towards Women's Premarital Sexuality Among Female Turkish University Students
• The True Love Thing to Do abstinence curriculum ( a 2½-hour abstinence seminar ) for teenagers
• WAIT "Washington AIDS International Teens"

Effectiveness of abstinence

• BBC News, 2 August 2007, No-sex programmes 'not working'
• CNN/Associated Press, April 14 2007, Study: Abstinence programs no guarantee
• Sabin Russell, San Francisco Chronicle, 24 February 2005, "Uganda's HIV rate drops, but not from abstinence: Study concludes basis of Bush policy apparently irrelevant"
• United States poll shows parents favoring abstinence-based education (Focus on the Family press release)
• Template:Dlw
• Texas A&M study shows abstinence works: Students more likely to abstain
• Shaoni Bhattacharya, NewScientist.com news service, 02 February 2005, "Teen sex abstinence study sparks controversy"

v • d • e Birth control
Comparison:	Comparison of birth control methods
Behavioral:	Avoiding vaginal intercourse: Anal sex, Oral sex, Non-penetrative sex, Masturbation, Abstinence Including vaginal intercourse: Fertility awareness, Rhythm Method, Withdrawal, Breastfeeding infertility
Barrier:	Condom, Female condom, Diaphragm, Cervical cap, Lea's Shield
Spermicide:	Contraceptive sponge
Hormonal:	Combined: Combined oral contraceptive pill ('the Pill'), Contraceptive patch, NuvaRing, Combined injectable contraceptive Progestogen only: Progestogen only pill ('minipill'), Depo-Provera, Norplant/Jadelle, Implanon
Anti-estrogen:	Ormeloxifene (a.k.a. Centchroman)
Intra-uterine:	IUD (copper or progestogen), IUS (progestogen)
Post-intercourse:	Contraception: Emergency contraception (pills or copper IUD) Abortion: Surgical abortion, Medical abortion (RU-486/abortion pill)
Sterilization:	Male: Vasectomy Female: Tubal ligation, Essure

ar:عفة

de:Keuschheitlt:Lytinis susilaikymas sv:kyskhet