Bottled water

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Image:Bottledwater.jpg
A 1.5 liter bottle of water
Mineral water being poured into a glass.
Mineral water being poured into a glass.

Bottled water is drinking water packaged in bottles for individual consumption and retail sale.

The water used can be glacial water, spring water, well water, purified water as well as public water sources (ie, tap water). Many countries, particularly developed countries, regulate the quality of bottled water through government standards, typically used to ensure that water quality is safe and labels accurately reflect bottle contents. In many developing countries, however, such standards are variable and are often less stringent than those of developed nations[citation needed].

Contents

Demand

The sales for bottled water are estimated to be between $50 and $100 billion (US) annually and increasing approximately 7 to 10 percent annually. In 2004, total sales were approximately 154 billion liters (41 billion gallons).[1]

In developed countries, demand is driven by a variety of factors including convenience, the perception that bottled water may be safer than local municipal water, and taste preferences. Packaging and advertising work to foster these perceptions and brand bottled water in ways similar to branded soft drinks. Though many municipalities, particularly in the developed world, provide high-quality, highly regulated, potable water, occasional problems with contamination from commercial fertilizer, MTBE, or other contaminants are often widely publicized. Violations of tap water standards are, in the United States, openly reported, especially examples like the severe 1993 Cryptosporidium outbreak in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, which led to 100 deaths and 400,000 illnesses (see: Milwaukee Cryptosporidium outbreak).

In most developed countries, however, especially the United States, the regulations governing tap water quality, monitoring, and regulation are more stringent than those for bottled water, where monitoring is less frequent and strict, and reporting violations is often voluntary. In the United States, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency set standards for tap water; the Food and Drug Administration sets standards for bottled water.

In developing countries, demand is driven by similar factors but further increased by the lack of potable groundwater in many areas, the lack of reliable or safe municipal water in many urban areas, chemical and organic pollution of ground and well water, and convenience relative to boiling or otherwise treating accessible but potentially contaminated water. As in richer countries, advertising also contributes to water sales in developing countries. Though bottled water may provide an alternative supryia and giron are going to winn! to unsafe drinking water, it does so only for those able to afford it; many of the world's poorest people cannot afford bottled water (UN World Water Development Report 2006).

In 2006, the US bottled water sales surpassed 8 Billion gallons of water (31 billion liters)(Beverage Marketing Corporation, 2007) exceeding sales of all other beverages except carbonated soft drinks.

Regulation

Regulation of bottled water varies widely by country, with developed nations generally having more regulation and enforcement than developing countries.

Regulation In the United States

In the United States, specific definitions and meanings ("standards of identity") apply to the most common types of bottled water. Bottled water manufacturers must ensure that their products meet the FDA established standard of identity for bottled water products. A bottled water product bearing a particular statement of identity (e.g., mineral water) must meet the requirements of the standard of identity in order to avoid being misbranded. For example, under the standard of identity regulations bottled water may only be labeled "mineral water" in the United States if it: (1) contains not less than 250 ppm total dissolved solids; (2) comes from a source tapped at one or more bore holes or springs; (3) originates from a hydrogeologically protected source; and (4) contains no added minerals. There are similar definitions for bottled water, drinking water, artesian water, ground water, distilled water, deionized water, reverse osmosis water, purified water, sparkling bottled water, spring water, sterile water and well water. A bottled water product must bear the appropriate name as reflected in the applicable standard of identity definition or it is misbranded.

Nutritional information required on water bottle labels varies from region to region and country to country. In the U.S. the only labeling required in the traditional "nutrition" label, which has almost no relevant information for water. In Europe, labels must include a chemical analysis for a far wider set of minerals. Bottled water in the U.S. is regulated by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), who demand suppliers use an "approved source", which the FDA defines as:

[approved source] means a source of water...that has been inspected and the water sampled, analyzed, and found to be of a safe and sanitary quality according to applicable laws and regulations of state and local government agencies having jurisdiction.

However, the FDA does not define guidelines for which regulations may be considered applicable, nor set requirements for water sources in the absence of applicable laws. Additionally, bottled water suppliers are not required to provide details of the water source on the labels. Water bottlers are permitted to sell contaminated water if, and only if, their labeling notes the water contains "excessive bacteria" or "excessive chemical substances". Water bottlers are not required to test for the presence of E. coli, cryptosporidium, giardia, asbestos, or certain organic compounds such as benzenes.[1]

In the United States, tap water is regulated by the stringent United States Environmental Protection Agency. Bottled water is regulated under a similar, but significantly less strict set of regulations from the United States Food and Drug Administration under the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act ("FFDCA" or the "Act"), 21 U.S.C. § 301et seq. [1]

U.S. FDA "Standards of Identity" for Bottled Water

The FDA has established "Standards of Identity" for bottled water products sold in the U.S. Note that other countries have different definitions and standards; some countries have no consistent labeling requirements. Some of the more common U.S. types of bottled water are listed below:

  • Artesian Water - This type of water that originates from a confined aquifer that has been tapped. The distinguishing feature of water from an artesian aquifer is that it flows from the tap due to gravity; the subterranian water level is at a height greater than that of the location of the tap.
  • Fluoridated Water - This type of water contains fluoride added within the limitations established in the FDA Code of Federal Regulations. This category includes water classified as "For Infants" or "Nursery."
  • Mineral Water - This type of water contains at least 250 parts per million total dissolved solids (TDS). It comes from a source tapped at one or more bore holes or spring, and originates from a geologically and physically protected underground water source. No minerals may be added to this water.
  • Purified water - This type of water has been produced by distillation, deionization, reverse osmosis, or other suitable processes. Purified water may also be referred to as "demineralized water." It meets the definition of "purified water" in the United States Pharmacopoeia.
  • Sparkling Water - This type of water contains the same amount of carbon dioxide that it had at emergence from the source. The carbon dioxide may be removed and replenished after treatment.
  • Spring Water - This type of water comes from an underground formation from which water flows naturally to the Earth's surface.
  • Sterile Water - This type of water meets the requirements under "sterility tests" in the United States Pharmacopoeia.

Markets

The United States is the largest market for bottled water, at 26 billion liters in 2004. On average, this is one 8-ounce glass per person per day. Italy has the highest average consumption per person, at two 8-ounce glasses per person per day.

Consumption by Country

Here is data for global markets in 2004, in billions of liters consumed. As ordered in greatest from least.[1]

  • All Others 39.9
  • USA 25.8
  • China 11.9
  • Brazil 11.6
  • Italy 10.7
  • Germany 10.3
  • France 8.5
  • Mexico 7.7
  • Indonesia 7.4
  • Spain 5.5
  • India 5.1
  • Total 154.3

Consumption per Person

Per person data is shown below, in average number of liters consumed per person per year.

  • Italy 183.6
  • Mexico 168.5
  • United Arab Emirates 163.5
  • Belgium 148.0
  • France 141.6
  • Spain 136.7
  • Germany 124.9
  • Lebanon 101.4
  • Switzerland 99.6
  • Cyprus 92.0
  • United States 90.5
  • Saudi Arabia 87.8
  • Czech Republic 87.1
  • Austria 82.1
  • Portugal 80.3
  • India 79.6
  • Global Average 24.2

More data and graphs are available externally.

Producer Revenues

U.S. Bottled Water Market, producer revenues, 2000 – 2006

Year Millions of US dollars Annual Change
2000 $6,113.0 --
2001 $6,880.6 12.6%
2002 $7,901.4 14.8%
2003 $8,526.4 7.9%
2004 $9,169.4 7.5%
2005 $10,012.5 9.2%
2006 * $10,980.0 9.7%

(*) Preliminary
Source: Beverage Marketing Corporation.[1][1]

Impact of bottled water

Image:Lots of bottled water.JPG
A large pile of full Poland Spring bottles

With sales of $11 billion a year [1], bottled water is a successful product available throughout the world. The behaviors it enables are the subject of vocal criticism. This criticism primarily falls into environmental, economic, and health categories.

Environmental impact

In 2004 the total global consumption of bottled water was 154 billion liters (41 billion gallons), a 57 percent increase from the 98 billion liters consumed in 1999.[1] Americans buy about 28 billion water bottles a year, 80% end up in landfills. California is leading the solution by recycling 60% of their bottles. (12 billion out of 20 billion sold)[citation needed] The environmental impact of bottled water includes

  • energy use in manufacturing, storing and transporting bottled water;
  • local effects on water resources; and
  • generation of solid waste.
Energy use in manufacturing, storage and transport

The Pacific Institute calculates that the process of making the plastic bottles for the water bottles consumed in the U.S. uses approximately 17 million barrels of oil per year. The manufacture of every ton of PET produces around 3 tons of carbon dioxide (CO2). Bottling water thus created more than 2.5 million tons of CO2 in 2006. [1]

Once the bottle is created and filled with water, large amounts of fossil fuel are expended delivering the water from its source to end user by means of ground transportation. Some bottled water is transported long distances by ship in addition to the distances it travels by truck or rail. It takes a fair amount of energy to move a plastic bottle from where it is made, to where it is filled, then to the store, and finally into the consumer's hand. 250g (0.00025 tons) of CO2 are released for each bottle of FIJI Water imported to the United States. This includes 93g for manufacturing a bottle in China, 4g for transporting an empty bottle to Fiji, and 153g for shipping a full bottle to the United States. [1]

Overall, the average energy cost to make the plastic, fill the bottle, transport it to market and then deal with the waste would be "like filling up a quarter of every bottle with oil." (Peter Gleick, an expert on water policy and director at the Pacific Institute in Oakland, California.[1]

Local effects on water resources

See also: Global use of fresh water

It also takes water to make a bottle. If a container holds 1 liter it requires 3 to 5 liters of water in its manufacturing process (the higher estimate includes power plant cooling water). By one estimate the total amount of water used to produce and deliver one bottle of imported water is even 6.74 l. [2]

The amount of water used to manufacture and fill water bottles is only a small fraction of the amount of global water withdrawals, since by far most water used by humans goes to irrigated agriculture and other large scale uses. But the local effects of bottled water are of growing concern in communities with large bottled water plants tapping into local aquifers. For example, large commercial bottlers are trying to meet growing demand for their product and are projecting large increases in coming years. Companies like Perrier's Zephyrhills facility are requesting to increase their pumping from a spring on a private ranch in central Florida by 600 percent in the next 10 years. The request was denied by a judge ruling that the pumping could dry up Tampa Bay kitchen sinks, some 37 miles downstream. [3]

On a local level, water bottlers may adversely affect ground water levels if they bottle more water than is naturally replenished. Rivers are delicate ecosystems. Tapping springs and aquifers even on a small scale can alter the movement of sediment in nearby streams, which can in turn disrupt the food supply for fish and other wildlife. "It's a very complicated system, and we don't have a very good predictive understanding of how the properties of the river channel will be affected [by large-scale pumping]," warns Kurt Cuffey, assistant professor of geology at the University of California at Berkeley.[4]

Saltwater intrusion is another problem with tapping aquifers in coastal areas. In healthy ecosystems along coastal areas there is a natural flow of groundwater that pushes freshwater out against the saltwater, creating a kind of sea wall. When the groundwater is being over used and the flow falters as a result the saltwater will begin to creep underground, ruining drinking water, wetlands, and crops. Saltwater intrusion is already a problem in parts of coastal California, Florida, and New York as a result of the demands–including water for bottling–being made on local water supplies. [5]

Solid waste generation

Though the materials used for water bottles are generally recyclable, around 80% of bottled water bottles sold in the U.S. end up in landfills; only 20% are recycled. Worldwide, recycling rates are even lower: up to 90% of bottles are not recycled. [6]

Economic impact

See also: Water supply and sanitation in Latin America

The economic impact of bottled water consumption is especially relevant in developing countries, where tap water is often of poor quality and where, even if the quality of tap water may be acceptable, it is often difficult to obtain reliable data on the quality of tap water. Therefore those who can afford it do not want to take a risk and switch to bottled water, usually of the type sold in large bottles of 5 gallons. Bottled water use is especially high in countries such as Mexico and Brazil (see above). While the poorest often can't afford bottled water and the richest face little economic constraints in buying bottled water, the cost of bottled water is a significant burden for middle-class households in many developing countries. For example, sales of bottled water in Mexico are estimated at 32 billion Pesos (US$ 3bn) in 2005,[1] or about US$ 135 per household, which is about twice the level of the average tap water bill. If these funds were available to water utilities they would have the financial means to improve significantly the quality of tap water.

The Wall Street Journal, after seeing the incredible demand for bottled water, is considering it the next best thing to oil and gold. [7]

In 2004, Andrea Petersen wrote in the Wall Street Journal that "... for the first time, Americans are expected to buy more bottled water than beer or coffee. Sales of bottled water reached $7.7 billion in 2002, up 12% from 2001, according to Beverage Marketing Corp., a New York-based consulting company.” [8] Bottled water is a big business and with the current trend, everyone trying to get a piece, the individual states and countries are beginning to voice their objections. Many states have voted the big companies not over pump on their soil. [9]

In Ontario, Canada, a fee has been aimed at commercial and industrial water users to contribute to the cost of managing the water supply. The fee has been dubbed a 'cost recovery regulatory charge'. Those charges are explicitly stated as not a tax but as a fee to create a more sustainable system. Polaris Institute[10]

Another concern is the "privatization" of water. The United Church of Christ, United Church of Canada, National Council of Churches, National Coalition of American Nuns and Presbyterians for Restoring Creation are among some of the religious organizations that have raised questions about whether or not this is ethical. They regard the industrial purchase and repackaging at a much higher resale price of a basic resource as an unethical trend. [11]

Health impact

About 25% of bottled water sold is simply re-processed/used municipal(city) water according to a 1999 study in the United States.[1] Both Aquafina from Pepsi-Cola Company and Dasani from The Coca-Cola Company are reprocessed from municipal water systems. [1][1] Some bottled waters, such as Penta Water make unverified health benefit claims. While there have been few comprehensive studies, one analysis several years ago found that about 22 percent of brands that were tested contain, in at least one sample, chemical contaminants at levels above strict state health limits. If consumed over a long period of time, some of these contaminants could cause cancer or other health problems.[1] In addition, 60 to 70 percent of all bottled water in the U.S. is packaged and sold in a state that is not regulated by the FDA. In the United States, 1 in 5 states do not regulate bottled water[1]. The FDA reports that:"about 75 percent of bottled water sold in the U.S. comes from natural underground sources, which include rivers, lakes, springs and artesian wells." The other 25% comes from municipal sources, which are the “sources” of two leading brands of bottled water--Dasani (Coca-Cola) and Aquafina (PepsiCo)[12]. Bottled water processed with distillation or reverse osmosis lacks fluoride ions which are sometimes naturally present in groundwater, or added at a water treatment plant and which has an effect on the inhibition of cavity formation; the drinking of distilled water may conceivably increase the risk of tooth decay due to a lack of this element.[1] People who drink mostly bottled water may wish to use supplemental fluoride, such as is available by prescription from dentists or doctors. However, most people continue to cook with common tap water and this is thought to potentially provide sufficient fluoride to maintain normal prophylaxis in many instances. Any other minerals in tap water such as calcium and magnesium are present in such minuscule amounts that their absence is compensated for many thousands of times over by other dietary sources. On the other hand, some people wish to avoid exposure to fluoride, particularly systemic ingestion of fluoride in drinking water, and may choose such bottled water for this feature. [13]

Bottled water is typically printed with expiration dates. Even if the water itself is pure, a plastic container may leak chemicals such as phthalates or Bisphenol A into the bottled water[1]. Storage in cool and dark places helps reduce leaching of these chemicals. Industry associations claim "bottled water can be used indefinitely if stored properly."[1]

If the original water bottled is not pure, especially if it contained biological contaminants, then the water quality will continue to degrade regardless of the storage container or conditions.[1]

Alternatives to bottled water

In developed countries, municipal water is generally of high quality, and provides a far cheaper alternative to pure or bottled water. In municipalities where the water is of a somewhat lower quality, the use of home filtration systems such as Brita, Culligan, Kinetico or PUR filters provides potable water at considerably lower cost than pure or bottled water[citation needed].

In many areas of the world, good municipal water is unavailable. The United Nations estimates that in 2005, 1.1 billion people lacked access to safe, affordable, drinking water, and two to five million people die every year from preventable water-related diseases. In areas without a consistent supply of safe, potable water, alternatives to bottled water include boiling, filtering, or otherwise processing contaminated water to remove harmful pathogens or chemicals[citation needed].

Even where advanced water filters are not available, and fuel for boiling is scarce, effective water filters can be made in a few hours from clay by hand without advanced technology or skills. [1]. In some areas, water may be obtained from and in the form of rainwater, stored in a cistern or rainwater tank. In rural areas the rain is typically very pure and can be safely consumed without additional treatment or filtration[citation needed]

Ground water obtained through pumps or wells should be monitored for quality to ensure no risk of contamination or build up. Many people in Bangladesh and West Bengal, India are drinking groundwater that has been discovered to be contaminated with arsenic after wells were drilled to protect the population from the contaminated surface water[citation needed].

Many countries such as the United Kingdom, have water that is adequate for drinking on tap, due to filters in the plumbing infrastructure. In these countries, it is sometimes seen as wasteful and pretentious to consume bottled water.

See also

Brands

References

External links


Acknowledgement and Attribution Regarding Sources of Content

Some of the initial content on this page may be incorporated in part from copyleft sources in the public domain including wikis such as Wikipedia and AskDrWiki. Drug information for patients came from the The National Library of Medicine. Infectious disease information may have come from the Centers for Disease Control (CDC). Differential Diagnoses are drawn from clinicians as well as an amalgamation of 3 sources: 1.The Disease Database; 2. Kahan, Scott, Smith, Ellen G. In A Page: Signs and Symptoms. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing, 2004:3; 3. Sailer, Christian, Wasner, Susanne. Differential Diagnosis Pocket. Hermosa Beach, CA: Borm Bruckmeir Publishing LLC, 2002:7 .

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